Statistics 简明教程

Statistics - Data Collection

研究所需的数据本质上可以是主要或次要的。根据定义，主要数据是研究人员专门为解决手头问题而一手收集的数据。调查研究本质上可以是客观主义或主观主义的。客观主义方法是一种更为严格和科学的方法。其中使用公开的标准程序对假设进行检验。几乎没有任何偏离既定程序或问题的方式。主观主义方法需要进行假设检验，但在遵循程序方面并不那么严格。研究人员被允许酌情使用非结构化方法来记录数据。研究数据可分类如下：

The data required for a research can be primary or secondary in nature. Primary data, by definition is the date that has been collected first hand by the researcher specially for addressing the population at hand. A survey research can be objectivist or subjectivist in nature. An objectivist approach is a more rigid and scientific approach. In this the hypothesis is tested using publicly standard procedure. There is little or no latitude available to deviate from the stated procedures or questions. A subjectivist approach, requires a hypothesis test, but is not that rigid in following the procedures. The researcher is allowed to use unstructured methods, at his discretion, to record data. The research data can be classified as follows:

data collection

Interview

从受访者访谈中收集数据的沟通方法形式是口头或口头提问。Bingham 和 Moore 将访谈描述为“有目的的对话”。Lindsey Gardner 将访谈定义为“两方的对话，最初由采访者发起，目的是获取与研究相关的特定信息，并由他以描述和解释的研究目标所指定的内容为重点。

A form of communication approach to collecting data from respondent’s interview is to oral or verbal questioning. Bingham and Moore have described interview as 'conversation with a purpose.' Lindsey Gardner, has defined interview as a 'two-person conversation, initiated by the interviewer for the specific purpose of obtaining research-relevant information and focused by him on the content specified by the research objectives of description and explanation.

因此，很明显，访谈是在两个人之间进行的口头对话，其目的是收集与研究相关的受访者信息。访谈可以分为各种类型，即个人访谈、电话访谈、焦点小组访谈、深度访谈和投影技术，也称为间接访谈。

It is thus clear that interview is a verbal conversation between two people with the objective of collecting research relevant information from the respondent. Interview can be classified into various types' viz., personal interview, telephone interview, focus group interview, depth interview and projective techniques also called as indirect interviewing.

Type of Interview

访谈技术可以归入以下类别：

The interview techniques can be grouped in the following categories:

Personal Interview

个人访谈是采访者和受访者之间的面对面交流方式。通常，个人访谈是以计划好的方式进行的，被称为“结构化访谈”。个人访谈可以以多种形式进行，例如上门访问访谈（受访者在家中接受采访）、计划好的正式行政会议（最常用来采访官员和商界人士）、或商场拦截调查（在选择的地点采访受访者，在这些地点找到受访者的可能性最大）。

A Personal interview is a face to face way communication between the interviewer and the respondent. Generally the personal interview is carried out in a planned manner and is referred to as 'structured interview'. The personal interviews can be conducted in many forms e.g. door to door interviewing where the respondents are interviewed in their home, or as planned formal executive meeting, most commonly used to interview officials and business persons, or as a mall intercept survey where respondents are interviewed at select places where the chances of finding respondents is maximum.

个人访谈需要大量准备。一般来说，访谈应经历以下阶段。

A personal interview involves a lot of preparation. Generally an interview should go through the following stages.

Telephone interview

在电话访谈中，通过电话提出问题来从受访者那里收集信息。电话和计算机的结合使这种方法更受欢迎。传统的电话访谈要求拨打一组受访者的电话，向他们询问写在纸上的问题，并用铅笔记录下来。在计算机辅助电话访谈 (CATI) 的情况下，使用计算机化的问卷，其中会提示采访者进行介绍性陈述、以及向受访者提出的限定性问题。

In telephone interviewing the information is collected from the respondent by asking the questions on phone. The marriage of telephone and computer has made this method even more popular. Traditional telephone interviews call for phoning a sample of respondents, asking them questions written on a paper and recording them with a pencil. In case of Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing (CATI) uses a computerized questionnaire is used which prompts the interviewer with introductory statements, and qualifying questions to be asked to the respondents.

计算机取代了纸和笔。计算机从样本中随机拨取一个号码，联系后，采访者将问题直接读入计算机的内存库中。另一种变体是“计算机管理电话调查 (CATS)”，其中采访者由计算机代替。问题是语音合成的，受访者的回答和计算机计时决定是继续还是断开连接。这种方法的主要缺点是，这种数据收集模式的拒绝影响了拒绝率（因此产生了非应答偏差），因为相对于人，人们更容易挂断计算机。与个人访谈相比，电话访谈具有以下优点：

The computer replaces the paper and pen. The computer randomly dials a number from the sample; upon contact the interviewer reads the questions and diret1y into the computer’s memory bank. Another variant is 'Computer Administered Telephone Surveys (CATS) where the interviewer is replaced by computer. The questions are voice synthesized and the respondent’s answer and computer timing decide whether to continue or disconnect. The chief disadvantage of this method is that the rejection of this mode of data collection affects the refusal rate (and thus non-response bias) because people hang up more easily on a computer than on a human Telephone interview has the following advantages over personal interview:

Focus group interview

一种非结构化访谈。它涉及主持人就特定主题在小团体受访者之间引导讨论。焦点小组访谈涉及 8 至 12 名具有同质特征的受访者，他们坐在舒适、轻松的非正式环境中。访谈通常持续 1 至 3 小时，在此期间，受访者建立融洽的关系并分享他们的观点。会谈记录在音频或可视设备上。主持人让讨论继续进行，并在必要时对受访者进行探究，以引发有见地的回应。对这些回应进行更好的分析以得出结论性结果。焦点小组访谈产生了归纳为以下 10 个“S”的优势

A kind of unstructured interview. It involves a moderator leading discussion between small groups of respondents on a specified topic. A focus group interview involves 8 to 12 respondents having homogeneous characteristics, seated in a comfortable relaxed informal atmosphere. The interview generally continues for 1 to 3 hour during which the respondents develop a rapport and share their views. The proceedings are recorded on an audio or visual device. The moderator keeps the discussion going and probes the respondents whenever necessary to elicit insightful responses. These responses are better analyzed to derive conclusive results. Focus group interview results in advantages summed up as following 10 "S"

  1. Synergism - When group of people produce better insight into a problem than individual.

  2. Snowballing - One person’s response initiates a chain of responses.

  3. Stimulation - As the interview progress respondents are more and more encouraged to give responses.

  4. Security - Since an individual generally finds somebody in the group who might endorse his opinion, he feels secure in answering.

  5. Spontaneity - Since there are no pre designed questions being asked, responses are spontaneous.

  6. Serendipity - Often new ideas are generated.

  7. Specialization - Since response is being sought from large numberof respondents, the interviewer or moderator is a highly trained person.

  8. Scientific Scrutiny - Since the proceedings are being recorded, they can be analyzed in a great detail scientifically.

  9. Structure - It allows for topic to be discussed flexibly and in great depth.

  10. Speed - Since a large number of respondents are being interviewed simultaneously, data is collected quickly.

然而，如同硬币的两面，焦点小组访谈也存在某些缺点，例如由于回应并未针对任何具体问题，因此结果可能会被错误解读。焦点小组访谈也使得数据的编码和分析变得非常困难。最重要的是，很难找到一位能够成功进行这些访谈的主持人。

However, like the two sides of a coin, focus group interview suffers from certain disadvantages like; the results can be wrongly interpreted since the response is not to any specific question. Focus group interviews make coding and analysis of data also very difficult. Most importantly, it is difficult to find a moderator who can conduct these interviews successfully.

Depth interviews

深度访谈类似于焦点小组访谈，是一种用于收集定性数据的不结构化访谈类型。然而，它涉及采访者和受访者之间的单对单互动。深度访谈可以采取“非指导性”的性质，受访者可以在感兴趣的话题范围内自由回答。深度访谈的另一种形式是“半结构化”性质，采访者虽然涵盖特定的话题清单，但每个问题的联系、顺序和措辞则由采访者自行决定。

Like the focus group interview in an unstructured type of interview used to collect qualitative data. However it is involves a one to one interaction between the interviewer and respondent. The depth interview can be 'non directive in nature where the respondent is given freedom to answer within the boundaries of topic of interest.' The other form of depth interview is 'semistructrured' in nature where the interviewer covers a specific list of topics although the linking, the sequence and the wording of each question is left to the interviewer’s discretion.

在深度访谈中，采访者会提出最初的问题，随后根据受访者的回应产生进一步的问题。采访者使用探索性技术来寻求更详细的说明。

In depth interviews, the interviewer asks the initial question and thereafter it is the response of the respondents from which further questions may be generated. The interviewer using probing techniques looks for more elaboration.

采访者只遵循一个大致的问题提纲。深度访谈的优点是可以比焦点小组访谈揭示出更深层次的感受和见解，因为深度访谈只与一名受访者打交道。然而，它的缺点是成本昂贵、耗时且需要有技能的采访者。

The interviewer only follows a rough outline of questions. The depth interviews have the advantage of uncovering much uncovering much deeper feelings and insights than focus group interviews, since they are dealing with just one respondent. However it suffers from the drawback of being expensive, time consuming and demands skilled interviewer.

Projective Techniques

这些技术涉及高度非结构化且间接的提问形式。所有投射技术的核心特点，就是呈现一个模糊、非结构化的物体、活动或人物，让受访者来解释和说明。这些技术最适合受访者不确定自己的感受，因此无法直接表达答案的情况。投射技术可以分为建构技术、联想技术和完成技术。

The techniques involve highly unstructured and indirect form of questioning. The central feature of all projective techniques that is the presentation of an ambiguous, unstructured object, activity or person that to respondent is asked to interpret and explain. These techniques are best suited in situation where the respondent is not sure of his feelings and hence cannot express his answers directly. The projective techniques can be classified as construction techniques, association techniques and completion techniques.

在投射技术中，要求受访者解释他人的行为，而通过这种方式，他们以间接的方式揭示了他们在相同情况下的行为。下面讨论其中一些技术。

In projective techniques, the respondents are asked to interpret the behavior of others and this way they indirectly reveal their own behavior in the same situation. Some of these techniques are discussed below.