Spring
分析&设计
设计模式 课程 设计思维 课程
AI 系列
ChatGPT 简明教程 Spring AI
机器学习
机器学习 基础 机器学习 With Python Pytorch 教程
Java教程
Java 基础 Java Concurrency java Nio
Python教程
Python 基础 Python Pandas
Postgresql 中文操作指南
    • Preface
      • 1. What Is PostgreSQL?
      • 2. A Brief History of PostgreSQL
        • 2.1. The Berkeley POSTGRES Project
        • 2.2. Postgres95
        • 2.3. PostgreSQL
      • 3. Conventions
      • 4. Further Information
      • 5. Bug Reporting Guidelines
        • 5.1. Identifying Bugs
        • 5.2. What to Report
        • 5.3. Where to Report Bugs
    • 1. What Is PostgreSQL?
    • 2. A Brief History of PostgreSQL
      • 2.1. The Berkeley POSTGRES Project
      • 2.2. Postgres95
      • 2.3. PostgreSQL
    • 3. Conventions
    • 4. Further Information
    • 5. Bug Reporting Guidelines
      • 5.1. Identifying Bugs
      • 5.2. What to Report
      • 5.3. Where to Report Bugs
    • I. Tutorial
      • 1. Getting Started
        • 1.1. Installation
        • 1.2. Architectural Fundamentals
        • 1.3. Creating a Database
        • 1.4. Accessing a Database
      • 2. The SQL Language
        • 2.1. Introduction
        • 2.2. Concepts
        • 2.3. Creating a New Table
        • 2.4. Populating a Table With Rows
        • 2.5. Querying a Table
        • 2.6. Joins Between Tables
        • 2.7. Aggregate Functions
        • 2.8. Updates
        • 2.9. Deletions
      • 3. Advanced Features
        • 3.1. Introduction
        • 3.2. Views
        • 3.3. Foreign Keys
        • 3.4. Transactions
        • 3.5. Window Functions
        • 3.6. Inheritance
        • 3.7. Conclusion
    • 1. Getting Started
      • 1.1. Installation
      • 1.2. Architectural Fundamentals
      • 1.3. Creating a Database
      • 1.4. Accessing a Database
    • 2. The SQL Language
      • 2.1. Introduction
      • 2.2. Concepts
      • 2.3. Creating a New Table
      • 2.4. Populating a Table With Rows
      • 2.5. Querying a Table
      • 2.6. Joins Between Tables
      • 2.7. Aggregate Functions
      • 2.8. Updates
      • 2.9. Deletions
    • 3. Advanced Features
      • 3.1. Introduction
      • 3.2. Views
      • 3.3. Foreign Keys
      • 3.4. Transactions
      • 3.5. Window Functions
      • 3.6. Inheritance
      • 3.7. Conclusion
    • II. The SQL Language
      • 4. SQL Syntax
        • 4.1. Lexical Structure
        • 4.2. Value Expressions
        • 4.3. Calling Functions
      • 5. Data Definition
        • 5.1. Table Basics
        • 5.2. Default Values
        • 5.3. Generated Columns
        • 5.4. Constraints
        • 5.5. System Columns
        • 5.6. Modifying Tables
        • 5.7. Privileges
        • 5.8. Row Security Policies
        • 5.9. Schemas
        • 5.10. Inheritance
        • 5.11. Table Partitioning
        • 5.12. Foreign Data
        • 5.13. Other Database Objects
        • 5.14. Dependency Tracking
      • 6. Data Manipulation
        • 6.1. Inserting Data
        • 6.2. Updating Data
        • 6.3. Deleting Data
        • 6.4. Returning Data from Modified Rows
      • 7. Queries
        • 7.1. Overview
        • 7.2. Table Expressions
        • 7.3. Select Lists
        • 7.4. Combining Queries (UNION, INTERSECT, EXCEPT)
        • 7.5. Sorting Rows (ORDER BY)
        • 7.6. LIMIT and OFFSET
        • 7.7. VALUES Lists
        • 7.8. WITH Queries (Common Table Expressions)
      • 8. Data Types
        • 8.1. Numeric Types
        • 8.2. Monetary Types
        • 8.3. Character Types
        • 8.4. Binary Data Types
        • 8.5. Date/Time Types
        • 8.6. Boolean Type
        • 8.7. Enumerated Types
        • 8.8. Geometric Types
        • 8.9. Network Address Types
        • 8.10. Bit String Types
        • 8.11. Text Search Types
        • 8.12. UUID Type
        • 8.13. XML Type
        • 8.14. JSON Types
        • 8.15. Arrays
        • 8.16. Composite Types
        • 8.17. Range Types
        • 8.18. Domain Types
        • 8.19. Object Identifier Types
        • 8.20. pg_lsn Type
        • 8.21. Pseudo-Types
      • 9. Functions and Operators
        • 9.1. Logical Operators
        • 9.2. Comparison Functions and Operators
        • 9.3. Mathematical Functions and Operators
        • 9.4. String Functions and Operators
        • 9.5. Binary String Functions and Operators
        • 9.6. Bit String Functions and Operators
        • 9.7. Pattern Matching
        • 9.8. Data Type Formatting Functions
        • 9.9. Date/Time Functions and Operators
        • 9.10. Enum Support Functions
        • 9.11. Geometric Functions and Operators
        • 9.12. Network Address Functions and Operators
        • 9.13. Text Search Functions and Operators
        • 9.14. UUID Functions
        • 9.15. XML Functions
        • 9.16. JSON Functions and Operators
        • 9.17. Sequence Manipulation Functions
        • 9.18. Conditional Expressions
        • 9.19. Array Functions and Operators
        • 9.20. Range/Multirange Functions and Operators
        • 9.21. Aggregate Functions
        • 9.22. Window Functions
        • 9.23. Subquery Expressions
        • 9.24. Row and Array Comparisons
        • 9.25. Set Returning Functions
        • 9.26. System Information Functions and Operators
        • 9.27. System Administration Functions
        • 9.28. Trigger Functions
        • 9.29. Event Trigger Functions
        • 9.30. Statistics Information Functions
      • 10. Type Conversion
        • 10.1. Overview
        • 10.2. Operators
        • 10.3. Functions
        • 10.4. Value Storage
        • 10.5. UNION, CASE, and Related Constructs
        • 10.6. SELECT Output Columns
      • 11. Indexes
        • 11.1. Introduction
        • 11.2. Index Types
        • 11.3. Multicolumn Indexes
        • 11.4. Indexes and ORDER BY
        • 11.5. Combining Multiple Indexes
        • 11.6. Unique Indexes
        • 11.7. Indexes on Expressions
        • 11.8. Partial Indexes
        • 11.9. Index-Only Scans and Covering Indexes
        • 11.10. Operator Classes and Operator Families
        • 11.11. Indexes and Collations
        • 11.12. Examining Index Usage
      • 12. Full Text Search
        • 12.1. Introduction
        • 12.2. Tables and Indexes
        • 12.3. Controlling Text Search
        • 12.4. Additional Features
        • 12.5. Parsers
        • 12.6. Dictionaries
        • 12.7. Configuration Example
        • 12.8. Testing and Debugging Text Search
        • 12.9. Preferred Index Types for Text Search
        • 12.10. psql Support
        • 12.11. Limitations
      • 13. Concurrency Control
        • 13.1. Introduction
        • 13.2. Transaction Isolation
        • 13.3. Explicit Locking
        • 13.4. Data Consistency Checks at the Application Level
        • 13.5. Serialization Failure Handling
        • 13.6. Caveats
        • 13.7. Locking and Indexes
      • 14. Performance Tips
        • 14.1. Using EXPLAIN
        • 14.2. Statistics Used by the Planner
        • 14.3. Controlling the Planner with Explicit JOIN Clauses
        • 14.4. Populating a Database
        • 14.5. Non-Durable Settings
      • 15. Parallel Query
        • 15.1. How Parallel Query Works
        • 15.2. When Can Parallel Query Be Used?
        • 15.3. Parallel Plans
        • 15.4. Parallel Safety
    • 4. SQL Syntax
      • 4.1. Lexical Structure
        • 4.1.1. Identifiers and Key Words
        • 4.1.2. Constants
        • 4.1.3. Operators
        • 4.1.4. Special Characters
        • 4.1.5. Comments
        • 4.1.6. Operator Precedence
      • 4.2. Value Expressions
        • 4.2.1. Column References
        • 4.2.2. Positional Parameters
        • 4.2.3. Subscripts
        • 4.2.4. Field Selection
        • 4.2.5. Operator Invocations
        • 4.2.6. Function Calls
        • 4.2.7. Aggregate Expressions
        • 4.2.8. Window Function Calls
        • 4.2.9. Type Casts
        • 4.2.10. Collation Expressions
        • 4.2.11. Scalar Subqueries
        • 4.2.12. Array Constructors
        • 4.2.13. Row Constructors
        • 4.2.14. Expression Evaluation Rules
      • 4.3. Calling Functions
        • 4.3.1. Using Positional Notation
        • 4.3.2. Using Named Notation
        • 4.3.3. Using Mixed Notation
    • 5. Data Definition
      • 5.1. Table Basics
      • 5.2. Default Values
      • 5.3. Generated Columns
      • 5.4. Constraints
        • 5.4.1. Check Constraints
        • 5.4.2. Not-Null Constraints
        • 5.4.3. Unique Constraints
        • 5.4.4. Primary Keys
        • 5.4.5. Foreign Keys
        • 5.4.6. Exclusion Constraints
      • 5.5. System Columns
      • 5.6. Modifying Tables
        • 5.6.1. Adding a Column
        • 5.6.2. Removing a Column
        • 5.6.3. Adding a Constraint
        • 5.6.4. Removing a Constraint
        • 5.6.5. Changing a Column’s Default Value
        • 5.6.6. Changing a Column’s Data Type
        • 5.6.7. Renaming a Column
        • 5.6.8. Renaming a Table
      • 5.7. Privileges
      • 5.8. Row Security Policies
      • 5.9. Schemas
        • 5.9.1. Creating a Schema
        • 5.9.2. The Public Schema
        • 5.9.3. The Schema Search Path
        • 5.9.4. Schemas and Privileges
        • 5.9.5. The System Catalog Schema
        • 5.9.6. Usage Patterns
        • 5.9.7. Portability
      • 5.10. Inheritance
        • 5.10.1. Caveats
      • 5.11. Table Partitioning
        • 5.11.1. Overview
        • 5.11.2. Declarative Partitioning
        • 5.11.3. Partitioning Using Inheritance
        • 5.11.4. Partition Pruning
        • 5.11.5. Partitioning and Constraint Exclusion
        • 5.11.6. Best Practices for Declarative Partitioning
      • 5.12. Foreign Data
      • 5.13. Other Database Objects
      • 5.14. Dependency Tracking
    • 6. Data Manipulation
      • 6.1. Inserting Data
      • 6.2. Updating Data
      • 6.3. Deleting Data
      • 6.4. Returning Data from Modified Rows
    • 7. Queries
      • 7.1. Overview
      • 7.2. Table Expressions
        • 7.2.1. The FROM Clause
        • 7.2.2. The WHERE Clause
        • 7.2.3. The GROUP BY and HAVING Clauses
        • 7.2.4. GROUPING SETS, CUBE, and ROLLUP
        • 7.2.5. Window Function Processing
      • 7.3. Select Lists
        • 7.3.1. Select-List Items
        • 7.3.2. Column Labels
        • 7.3.3. DISTINCT
      • 7.4. Combining Queries (UNION, INTERSECT, EXCEPT)
      • 7.5. Sorting Rows (ORDER BY)
      • 7.6. LIMIT and OFFSET
      • 7.7. VALUES Lists
      • 7.8. WITH Queries (Common Table Expressions)
        • 7.8.1. SELECT in WITH
        • 7.8.2. Recursive Queries
        • 7.8.3. Common Table Expression Materialization
        • 7.8.4. Data-Modifying Statements in WITH
    • 8. Data Types
      • 8.1. Numeric Types
        • 8.1.1. Integer Types
        • 8.1.2. Arbitrary Precision Numbers
        • 8.1.3. Floating-Point Types
        • 8.1.4. Serial Types
      • 8.2. Monetary Types
      • 8.3. Character Types
      • 8.4. Binary Data Types
        • 8.4.1. bytea Hex Format
        • 8.4.2. bytea Escape Format
      • 8.5. Date/Time Types
        • 8.5.1. Date/Time Input
        • 8.5.2. Date/Time Output
        • 8.5.3. Time Zones
        • 8.5.4. Interval Input
        • 8.5.5. Interval Output
      • 8.6. Boolean Type
      • 8.7. Enumerated Types
        • 8.7.1. Declaration of Enumerated Types
        • 8.7.2. Ordering
        • 8.7.3. Type Safety
        • 8.7.4. Implementation Details
      • 8.8. Geometric Types
        • 8.8.1. Points
        • 8.8.2. Lines
        • 8.8.3. Line Segments
        • 8.8.4. Boxes
        • 8.8.5. Paths
        • 8.8.6. Polygons
        • 8.8.7. Circles
      • 8.9. Network Address Types
        • 8.9.1. inet
        • 8.9.2. cidr
        • 8.9.3. inet vs. cidr
        • 8.9.4. macaddr
        • 8.9.5. macaddr8
      • 8.10. Bit String Types
      • 8.11. Text Search Types
        • 8.11.1. tsvector
        • 8.11.2. tsquery
      • 8.12. UUID Type
      • 8.13. XML Type
        • 8.13.1. Creating XML Values
        • 8.13.2. Encoding Handling
        • 8.13.3. Accessing XML Values
      • 8.14. JSON Types
        • 8.14.1. JSON Input and Output Syntax
        • 8.14.2. Designing JSON Documents
        • 8.14.3. jsonb Containment and Existence
        • 8.14.4. jsonb Indexing
        • 8.14.5. jsonb Subscripting
        • 8.14.6. Transforms
        • 8.14.7. jsonpath Type
      • 8.15. Arrays
        • 8.15.1. Declaration of Array Types
        • 8.15.2. Array Value Input
        • 8.15.3. Accessing Arrays
        • 8.15.4. Modifying Arrays
        • 8.15.5. Searching in Arrays
        • 8.15.6. Array Input and Output Syntax
      • 8.16. Composite Types
        • 8.16.1. Declaration of Composite Types
        • 8.16.2. Constructing Composite Values
        • 8.16.3. Accessing Composite Types
        • 8.16.4. Modifying Composite Types
        • 8.16.5. Using Composite Types in Queries
        • 8.16.6. Composite Type Input and Output Syntax
      • 8.17. Range Types
        • 8.17.1. Built-in Range and Multirange Types
        • 8.17.2. Examples
        • 8.17.3. Inclusive and Exclusive Bounds
        • 8.17.4. Infinite (Unbounded) Ranges
        • 8.17.5. Range Input/Output
        • 8.17.6. Constructing Ranges and Multiranges
        • 8.17.7. Discrete Range Types
        • 8.17.8. Defining New Range Types
        • 8.17.9. Indexing
        • 8.17.10. Constraints on Ranges
      • 8.18. Domain Types
      • 8.19. Object Identifier Types
      • 8.20. pg_lsn Type
      • 8.21. Pseudo-Types
    • 9. Functions and Operators
      • 9.1. Logical Operators
      • 9.2. Comparison Functions and Operators
      • 9.3. Mathematical Functions and Operators
      • 9.4. String Functions and Operators
        • 9.4.1. format
      • 9.5. Binary String Functions and Operators
      • 9.6. Bit String Functions and Operators
      • 9.7. Pattern Matching
        • 9.7.1. LIKE
        • 9.7.2. SIMILAR TO Regular Expressions
        • 9.7.3. POSIX Regular Expressions
      • 9.8. Data Type Formatting Functions
      • 9.9. Date/Time Functions and Operators
        • 9.9.1. EXTRACT, date_part
        • 9.9.2. date_trunc
        • 9.9.3. date_bin
        • 9.9.4. AT TIME ZONE
        • 9.9.5. Current Date/Time
        • 9.9.6. Delaying Execution
      • 9.10. Enum Support Functions
      • 9.11. Geometric Functions and Operators
      • 9.12. Network Address Functions and Operators
      • 9.13. Text Search Functions and Operators
      • 9.14. UUID Functions
      • 9.15. XML Functions
        • 9.15.1. Producing XML Content
        • 9.15.2. XML Predicates
        • 9.15.3. Processing XML
        • 9.15.4. Mapping Tables to XML
      • 9.16. JSON Functions and Operators
        • 9.16.1. Processing and Creating JSON Data
        • 9.16.2. The SQL/JSON Path Language
      • 9.17. Sequence Manipulation Functions
      • 9.18. Conditional Expressions
        • 9.18.1. CASE
        • 9.18.2. COALESCE
        • 9.18.3. NULLIF
        • 9.18.4. GREATEST and LEAST
      • 9.19. Array Functions and Operators
      • 9.20. Range/Multirange Functions and Operators
      • 9.21. Aggregate Functions
      • 9.22. Window Functions
      • 9.23. Subquery Expressions
        • 9.23.1. EXISTS
        • 9.23.2. IN
        • 9.23.3. NOT IN
        • 9.23.4. ANY/SOME
        • 9.23.5. ALL
        • 9.23.6. Single-Row Comparison
      • 9.24. Row and Array Comparisons
        • 9.24.1. IN
        • 9.24.2. NOT IN
        • 9.24.3. ANY/SOME (array)
        • 9.24.4. ALL (array)
        • 9.24.5. Row Constructor Comparison
        • 9.24.6. Composite Type Comparison
      • 9.25. Set Returning Functions
      • 9.26. System Information Functions and Operators
        • 9.26.1. Session Information Functions
        • 9.26.2. Access Privilege Inquiry Functions
        • 9.26.3. Schema Visibility Inquiry Functions
        • 9.26.4. System Catalog Information Functions
        • 9.26.5. Object Information and Addressing Functions
        • 9.26.6. Comment Information Functions
        • 9.26.7. Data Validity Checking Functions
        • 9.26.8. Transaction ID and Snapshot Information Functions
        • 9.26.9. Committed Transaction Information Functions
        • 9.26.10. Control Data Functions
      • 9.27. System Administration Functions
        • 9.27.1. Configuration Settings Functions
        • 9.27.2. Server Signaling Functions
        • 9.27.3. Backup Control Functions
        • 9.27.4. Recovery Control Functions
        • 9.27.5. Snapshot Synchronization Functions
        • 9.27.6. Replication Management Functions
        • 9.27.7. Database Object Management Functions
        • 9.27.8. Index Maintenance Functions
        • 9.27.9. Generic File Access Functions
        • 9.27.10. Advisory Lock Functions
      • 9.28. Trigger Functions
      • 9.29. Event Trigger Functions
        • 9.29.1. Capturing Changes at Command End
        • 9.29.2. Processing Objects Dropped by a DDL Command
        • 9.29.3. Handling a Table Rewrite Event
      • 9.30. Statistics Information Functions
        • 9.30.1. Inspecting MCV Lists
    • 10. Type Conversion
      • 10.1. Overview
      • 10.2. Operators
      • 10.3. Functions
      • 10.4. Value Storage
      • 10.5. UNION, CASE, and Related Constructs
      • 10.6. SELECT Output Columns
    • 11. Indexes
      • 11.1. Introduction
      • 11.2. Index Types
        • 11.2.1. B-Tree
        • 11.2.2. Hash
        • 11.2.3. GiST
        • 11.2.4. SP-GiST
        • 11.2.5. GIN
        • 11.2.6. BRIN
      • 11.3. Multicolumn Indexes
      • 11.4. Indexes and ORDER BY
      • 11.5. Combining Multiple Indexes
      • 11.6. Unique Indexes
      • 11.7. Indexes on Expressions
      • 11.8. Partial Indexes
      • 11.9. Index-Only Scans and Covering Indexes
      • 11.10. Operator Classes and Operator Families
      • 11.11. Indexes and Collations
      • 11.12. Examining Index Usage
    • 12. Full Text Search
      • 12.1. Introduction
        • 12.1.1. What Is a Document?
        • 12.1.2. Basic Text Matching
        • 12.1.3. Configurations
      • 12.2. Tables and Indexes
        • 12.2.1. Searching a Table
        • 12.2.2. Creating Indexes
      • 12.3. Controlling Text Search
        • 12.3.1. Parsing Documents
        • 12.3.2. Parsing Queries
        • 12.3.3. Ranking Search Results
        • 12.3.4. Highlighting Results
      • 12.4. Additional Features
        • 12.4.1. Manipulating Documents
        • 12.4.2. Manipulating Queries
        • 12.4.3. Triggers for Automatic Updates
        • 12.4.4. Gathering Document Statistics
      • 12.5. Parsers
      • 12.6. Dictionaries
        • 12.6.1. Stop Words
        • 12.6.2. Simple Dictionary
        • 12.6.3. Synonym Dictionary
        • 12.6.4. Thesaurus Dictionary
        • 12.6.5. Ispell Dictionary
        • 12.6.6. Snowball Dictionary
      • 12.7. Configuration Example
      • 12.8. Testing and Debugging Text Search
        • 12.8.1. Configuration Testing
        • 12.8.2. Parser Testing
        • 12.8.3. Dictionary Testing
      • 12.9. Preferred Index Types for Text Search
      • 12.10. psql Support
      • 12.11. Limitations
    • 13. Concurrency Control
      • 13.1. Introduction
      • 13.2. Transaction Isolation
        • 13.2.1. Read Committed Isolation Level
        • 13.2.2. Repeatable Read Isolation Level
        • 13.2.3. Serializable Isolation Level
      • 13.3. Explicit Locking
        • 13.3.1. Table-Level Locks
        • 13.3.2. Row-Level Locks
        • 13.3.3. Page-Level Locks
        • 13.3.4. Deadlocks
        • 13.3.5. Advisory Locks
      • 13.4. Data Consistency Checks at the Application Level
        • 13.4.1. Enforcing Consistency with Serializable Transactions
        • 13.4.2. Enforcing Consistency with Explicit Blocking Locks
      • 13.5. Serialization Failure Handling
      • 13.6. Caveats
      • 13.7. Locking and Indexes
    • 14. Performance Tips
      • 14.1. Using EXPLAIN
        • 14.1.1. EXPLAIN Basics
        • 14.1.2. EXPLAIN ANALYZE
        • 14.1.3. Caveats
      • 14.2. Statistics Used by the Planner
        • 14.2.1. Single-Column Statistics
        • 14.2.2. Extended Statistics
      • 14.3. Controlling the Planner with Explicit JOIN Clauses
      • 14.4. Populating a Database
        • 14.4.1. Disable Autocommit
        • 14.4.2. Use COPY
        • 14.4.3. Remove Indexes
        • 14.4.4. Remove Foreign Key Constraints
        • 14.4.5. Increase maintenance_work_mem
        • 14.4.6. Increase max_wal_size
        • 14.4.7. Disable WAL Archival and Streaming Replication
        • 14.4.8. Run ANALYZE Afterwards
        • 14.4.9. Some Notes about pg_dump
      • 14.5. Non-Durable Settings
    • 15. Parallel Query
      • 15.1. How Parallel Query Works
      • 15.2. When Can Parallel Query Be Used?
      • 15.3. Parallel Plans
        • 15.3.1. Parallel Scans
        • 15.3.2. Parallel Joins
        • 15.3.3. Parallel Aggregation
        • 15.3.4. Parallel Append
        • 15.3.5. Parallel Plan Tips
      • 15.4. Parallel Safety
        • 15.4.1. Parallel Labeling for Functions and Aggregates
    • III. Server Administration
      • 16. Installation from Binaries
      • 17. Installation from Source Code
        • 17.1. Requirements
        • 17.2. Getting the Source
        • 17.3. Building and Installation with Autoconf and Make
        • 17.4. Building and Installation with Meson
        • 17.5. Post-Installation Setup
        • 17.6. Supported Platforms
        • 17.7. Platform-Specific Notes
      • 18. Installation from Source Code on Windows
        • 18.1. Building with Visual C++ or the Microsoft Windows SDK
      • 19. Server Setup and Operation
        • 19.1. The PostgreSQL User Account
        • 19.2. Creating a Database Cluster
        • 19.3. Starting the Database Server
        • 19.4. Managing Kernel Resources
        • 19.5. Shutting Down the Server
        • 19.6. Upgrading a PostgreSQL Cluster
        • 19.7. Preventing Server Spoofing
        • 19.8. Encryption Options
        • 19.9. Secure TCP/IP Connections with SSL
        • 19.10. Secure TCP/IP Connections with GSSAPI Encryption
        • 19.11. Secure TCP/IP Connections with SSH Tunnels
        • 19.12. Registering Event Log on Windows
      • 20. Server Configuration
        • 20.1. Setting Parameters
        • 20.2. File Locations
        • 20.3. Connections and Authentication
        • 20.4. Resource Consumption
        • 20.5. Write Ahead Log
        • 20.6. Replication
        • 20.7. Query Planning
        • 20.8. Error Reporting and Logging
        • 20.9. Run-time Statistics
        • 20.10. Automatic Vacuuming
        • 20.11. Client Connection Defaults
        • 20.12. Lock Management
        • 20.13. Version and Platform Compatibility
        • 20.14. Error Handling
        • 20.15. Preset Options
        • 20.16. Customized Options
        • 20.17. Developer Options
        • 20.18. Short Options
      • 21. Client Authentication
        • 21.1. The pg_hba.conf File
        • 21.2. User Name Maps
        • 21.3. Authentication Methods
        • 21.4. Trust Authentication
        • 21.5. Password Authentication
        • 21.6. GSSAPI Authentication
        • 21.7. SSPI Authentication
        • 21.8. Ident Authentication
        • 21.9. Peer Authentication
        • 21.10. LDAP Authentication
        • 21.11. RADIUS Authentication
        • 21.12. Certificate Authentication
        • 21.13. PAM Authentication
        • 21.14. BSD Authentication
        • 21.15. Authentication Problems
      • 22. Database Roles
        • 22.1. Database Roles
        • 22.2. Role Attributes
        • 22.3. Role Membership
        • 22.4. Dropping Roles
        • 22.5. Predefined Roles
        • 22.6. Function Security
      • 23. Managing Databases
        • 23.1. Overview
        • 23.2. Creating a Database
        • 23.3. Template Databases
        • 23.4. Database Configuration
        • 23.5. Destroying a Database
        • 23.6. Tablespaces
      • 24. Localization
        • 24.1. Locale Support
        • 24.2. Collation Support
        • 24.3. Character Set Support
      • 25. Routine Database Maintenance Tasks
        • 25.1. Routine Vacuuming
        • 25.2. Routine Reindexing
        • 25.3. Log File Maintenance
      • 26. Backup and Restore
        • 26.1. SQL Dump
        • 26.2. File System Level Backup
        • 26.3. Continuous Archiving and Point-in-Time Recovery (PITR)
      • 27. High Availability, Load Balancing, and Replication
        • 27.1. Comparison of Different Solutions
        • 27.2. Log-Shipping Standby Servers
        • 27.3. Failover
        • 27.4. Hot Standby
      • 28. Monitoring Database Activity
        • 28.1. Standard Unix Tools
        • 28.2. The Cumulative Statistics System
        • 28.3. Viewing Locks
        • 28.4. Progress Reporting
        • 28.5. Dynamic Tracing
      • 29. Monitoring Disk Usage
        • 29.1. Determining Disk Usage
        • 29.2. Disk Full Failure
      • 30. Reliability and the Write-Ahead Log
        • 30.1. Reliability
        • 30.2. Data Checksums
        • 30.3. Write-Ahead Logging (WAL)
        • 30.4. Asynchronous Commit
        • 30.5. WAL Configuration
        • 30.6. WAL Internals
      • 31. Logical Replication
        • 31.1. Publication
        • 31.2. Subscription
        • 31.3. Row Filters
        • 31.4. Column Lists
        • 31.5. Conflicts
        • 31.6. Restrictions
        • 31.7. Architecture
        • 31.8. Monitoring
        • 31.9. Security
        • 31.10. Configuration Settings
        • 31.11. Quick Setup
      • 32. Just-in-Time Compilation (JIT)
        • 32.1. What Is JIT compilation?
        • 32.2. When to JIT?
        • 32.3. Configuration
        • 32.4. Extensibility
      • 33. Regression Tests
        • 33.1. Running the Tests
        • 33.2. Test Evaluation
        • 33.3. Variant Comparison Files
        • 33.4. TAP Tests
        • 33.5. Test Coverage Examination
    • 16. Installation from Binaries
    • 17. Installation from Source Code
      • 17.1. Requirements
      • 17.2. Getting the Source
      • 17.3. Building and Installation with Autoconf and Make
        • 17.3.1. Short Version
        • 17.3.2. Installation Procedure
        • 17.3.3. configure Options
        • 17.3.4. configure Environment Variables
      • 17.4. Building and Installation with Meson
        • 17.4.1. Short Version
        • 17.4.2. Installation Procedure
        • 17.4.3. meson setup Options
      • 17.5. Post-Installation Setup
        • 17.5.1. Shared Libraries
        • 17.5.2. Environment Variables
      • 17.6. Supported Platforms
      • 17.7. Platform-Specific Notes
        • 17.7.1. AIX
        • 17.7.2. Cygwin
        • 17.7.3. macOS
        • 17.7.4. MinGW/Native Windows
        • 17.7.5. Solaris
    • 18. Installation from Source Code on Windows
      • 18.1. Building with Visual C++ or the Microsoft Windows SDK
        • 18.1.1. Requirements
        • 18.1.2. Special Considerations for 64-Bit Windows
        • 18.1.3. Building
        • 18.1.4. Cleaning and Installing
        • 18.1.5. Running the Regression Tests
    • 19. Server Setup and Operation
      • 19.1. The PostgreSQL User Account
      • 19.2. Creating a Database Cluster
        • 19.2.1. Use of Secondary File Systems
        • 19.2.2. File Systems
      • 19.3. Starting the Database Server
        • 19.3.1. Server Start-up Failures
        • 19.3.2. Client Connection Problems
      • 19.4. Managing Kernel Resources
        • 19.4.1. Shared Memory and Semaphores
        • 19.4.2. systemd RemoveIPC
        • 19.4.3. Resource Limits
        • 19.4.4. Linux Memory Overcommit
        • 19.4.5. Linux Huge Pages
      • 19.5. Shutting Down the Server
      • 19.6. Upgrading a PostgreSQL Cluster
        • 19.6.1. Upgrading Data via pg_dumpall
        • 19.6.2. Upgrading Data via pg_upgrade
        • 19.6.3. Upgrading Data via Replication
      • 19.7. Preventing Server Spoofing
      • 19.8. Encryption Options
      • 19.9. Secure TCP/IP Connections with SSL
        • 19.9.1. Basic Setup
        • 19.9.2. OpenSSL Configuration
        • 19.9.3. Using Client Certificates
        • 19.9.4. SSL Server File Usage
        • 19.9.5. Creating Certificates
      • 19.10. Secure TCP/IP Connections with GSSAPI Encryption
        • 19.10.1. Basic Setup
      • 19.11. Secure TCP/IP Connections with SSH Tunnels
      • 19.12. Registering Event Log on Windows
    • 20. Server Configuration
      • 20.1. Setting Parameters
        • 20.1.1. Parameter Names and Values
        • 20.1.2. Parameter Interaction via the Configuration File
        • 20.1.3. Parameter Interaction via SQL
        • 20.1.4. Parameter Interaction via the Shell
        • 20.1.5. Managing Configuration File Contents
      • 20.2. File Locations
      • 20.3. Connections and Authentication
        • 20.3.1. Connection Settings
        • 20.3.2. TCP Settings
        • 20.3.3. Authentication
        • 20.3.4. SSL
      • 20.4. Resource Consumption
        • 20.4.1. Memory
        • 20.4.2. Disk
        • 20.4.3. Kernel Resource Usage
        • 20.4.4. Cost-based Vacuum Delay
        • 20.4.5. Background Writer
        • 20.4.6. Asynchronous Behavior
      • 20.5. Write Ahead Log
        • 20.5.1. Settings
        • 20.5.2. Checkpoints
        • 20.5.3. Archiving
        • 20.5.4. Recovery
        • 20.5.5. Archive Recovery
        • 20.5.6. Recovery Target
      • 20.6. Replication
        • 20.6.1. Sending Servers
        • 20.6.2. Primary Server
        • 20.6.3. Standby Servers
        • 20.6.4. Subscribers
      • 20.7. Query Planning
        • 20.7.1. Planner Method Configuration
        • 20.7.2. Planner Cost Constants
        • 20.7.3. Genetic Query Optimizer
        • 20.7.4. Other Planner Options
      • 20.8. Error Reporting and Logging
        • 20.8.1. Where to Log
        • 20.8.2. When to Log
        • 20.8.3. What to Log
        • 20.8.4. Using CSV-Format Log Output
        • 20.8.5. Using JSON-Format Log Output
        • 20.8.6. Process Title
      • 20.9. Run-time Statistics
        • 20.9.1. Cumulative Query and Index Statistics
        • 20.9.2. Statistics Monitoring
      • 20.10. Automatic Vacuuming
      • 20.11. Client Connection Defaults
        • 20.11.1. Statement Behavior
        • 20.11.2. Locale and Formatting
        • 20.11.3. Shared Library Preloading
        • 20.11.4. Other Defaults
      • 20.12. Lock Management
      • 20.13. Version and Platform Compatibility
        • 20.13.1. Previous PostgreSQL Versions
        • 20.13.2. Platform and Client Compatibility
      • 20.14. Error Handling
      • 20.15. Preset Options
      • 20.16. Customized Options
      • 20.17. Developer Options
      • 20.18. Short Options
    • 21. Client Authentication
      • 21.1. The pg_hba.conf File
      • 21.2. User Name Maps
      • 21.3. Authentication Methods
      • 21.4. Trust Authentication
      • 21.5. Password Authentication
      • 21.6. GSSAPI Authentication
      • 21.7. SSPI Authentication
      • 21.8. Ident Authentication
      • 21.9. Peer Authentication
      • 21.10. LDAP Authentication
      • 21.11. RADIUS Authentication
      • 21.12. Certificate Authentication
      • 21.13. PAM Authentication
      • 21.14. BSD Authentication
      • 21.15. Authentication Problems
    • 22. Database Roles
      • 22.1. Database Roles
      • 22.2. Role Attributes
      • 22.3. Role Membership
      • 22.4. Dropping Roles
      • 22.5. Predefined Roles
      • 22.6. Function Security
    • 23. Managing Databases
      • 23.1. Overview
      • 23.2. Creating a Database
      • 23.3. Template Databases
      • 23.4. Database Configuration
      • 23.5. Destroying a Database
      • 23.6. Tablespaces
    • 24. Localization
      • 24.1. Locale Support
        • 24.1.1. Overview
        • 24.1.2. Behavior
        • 24.1.3. Selecting Locales
        • 24.1.4. Locale Providers
        • 24.1.5. ICU Locales
        • 24.1.6. Problems
      • 24.2. Collation Support
        • 24.2.1. Concepts
        • 24.2.2. Managing Collations
        • 24.2.3. ICU Custom Collations
      • 24.3. Character Set Support
        • 24.3.1. Supported Character Sets
        • 24.3.2. Setting the Character Set
        • 24.3.3. Automatic Character Set Conversion Between Server and Client
        • 24.3.4. Available Character Set Conversions
        • 24.3.5. Further Reading
    • 25. Routine Database Maintenance Tasks
      • 25.1. Routine Vacuuming
        • 25.1.1. Vacuuming Basics
        • 25.1.2. Recovering Disk Space
        • 25.1.3. Updating Planner Statistics
        • 25.1.4. Updating the Visibility Map
        • 25.1.5. Preventing Transaction ID Wraparound Failures
        • 25.1.6. The Autovacuum Daemon
      • 25.2. Routine Reindexing
      • 25.3. Log File Maintenance
    • 26. Backup and Restore
      • 26.1. SQL Dump
        • 26.1.1. Restoring the Dump
        • 26.1.2. Using pg_dumpall
        • 26.1.3. Handling Large Databases
      • 26.2. File System Level Backup
      • 26.3. Continuous Archiving and Point-in-Time Recovery (PITR)
        • 26.3.1. Setting Up WAL Archiving
        • 26.3.2. Making a Base Backup
        • 26.3.3. Making a Base Backup Using the Low Level API
        • 26.3.4. Recovering Using a Continuous Archive Backup
        • 26.3.5. Timelines
        • 26.3.6. Tips and Examples
        • 26.3.7. Caveats
    • 27. High Availability, Load Balancing, and Replication
      • 27.1. Comparison of Different Solutions
      • 27.2. Log-Shipping Standby Servers
        • 27.2.1. Planning
        • 27.2.2. Standby Server Operation
        • 27.2.3. Preparing the Primary for Standby Servers
        • 27.2.4. Setting Up a Standby Server
        • 27.2.5. Streaming Replication
        • 27.2.6. Replication Slots
        • 27.2.7. Cascading Replication
        • 27.2.8. Synchronous Replication
        • 27.2.9. Continuous Archiving in Standby
      • 27.3. Failover
      • 27.4. Hot Standby
        • 27.4.1. User’s Overview
        • 27.4.2. Handling Query Conflicts
        • 27.4.3. Administrator’s Overview
        • 27.4.4. Hot Standby Parameter Reference
        • 27.4.5. Caveats
    • 28. Monitoring Database Activity
      • 28.1. Standard Unix Tools
      • 28.2. The Cumulative Statistics System
        • 28.2.1. Statistics Collection Configuration
        • 28.2.2. Viewing Statistics
        • 28.2.3. pg_stat_activity
        • 28.2.4. pg_stat_replication
        • 28.2.5. pg_stat_replication_slots
        • 28.2.6. pg_stat_wal_receiver
        • 28.2.7. pg_stat_recovery_prefetch
        • 28.2.8. pg_stat_subscription
        • 28.2.9. pg_stat_subscription_stats
        • 28.2.10. pg_stat_ssl
        • 28.2.11. pg_stat_gssapi
        • 28.2.12. pg_stat_archiver
        • 28.2.13. pg_stat_io
        • 28.2.14. pg_stat_bgwriter
        • 28.2.15. pg_stat_wal
        • 28.2.16. pg_stat_database
        • 28.2.17. pg_stat_database_conflicts
        • 28.2.18. pg_stat_all_tables
        • 28.2.19. pg_stat_all_indexes
        • 28.2.20. pg_statio_all_tables
        • 28.2.21. pg_statio_all_indexes
        • 28.2.22. pg_statio_all_sequences
        • 28.2.23. pg_stat_user_functions
        • 28.2.24. pg_stat_slru
        • 28.2.25. Statistics Functions
      • 28.3. Viewing Locks
      • 28.4. Progress Reporting
        • 28.4.1. ANALYZE Progress Reporting
        • 28.4.2. CLUSTER Progress Reporting
        • 28.4.3. COPY Progress Reporting
        • 28.4.4. CREATE INDEX Progress Reporting
        • 28.4.5. VACUUM Progress Reporting
        • 28.4.6. Base Backup Progress Reporting
      • 28.5. Dynamic Tracing
        • 28.5.1. Compiling for Dynamic Tracing
        • 28.5.2. Built-in Probes
        • 28.5.3. Using Probes
        • 28.5.4. Defining New Probes
    • 29. Monitoring Disk Usage
      • 29.1. Determining Disk Usage
      • 29.2. Disk Full Failure
    • 30. Reliability and the Write-Ahead Log
      • 30.1. Reliability
      • 30.2. Data Checksums
        • 30.2.1. Off-line Enabling of Checksums
      • 30.3. Write-Ahead Logging (WAL)
      • 30.4. Asynchronous Commit
      • 30.5. WAL Configuration
      • 30.6. WAL Internals
    • 31. Logical Replication
      • 31.1. Publication
      • 31.2. Subscription
        • 31.2.1. Replication Slot Management
        • 31.2.2. Examples: Set Up Logical Replication
        • 31.2.3. Examples: Deferred Replication Slot Creation
      • 31.3. Row Filters
        • 31.3.1. Row Filter Rules
        • 31.3.2. Expression Restrictions
        • 31.3.3. UPDATE Transformations
        • 31.3.4. Partitioned Tables
        • 31.3.5. Initial Data Synchronization
        • 31.3.6. Combining Multiple Row Filters
        • 31.3.7. Examples
      • 31.4. Column Lists
        • 31.4.1. Examples
      • 31.5. Conflicts
      • 31.6. Restrictions
      • 31.7. Architecture
        • 31.7.1. Initial Snapshot
      • 31.8. Monitoring
      • 31.9. Security
      • 31.10. Configuration Settings
        • 31.10.1. Publishers
        • 31.10.2. Subscribers
      • 31.11. Quick Setup
    • 32. Just-in-Time Compilation (JIT)
      • 32.1. What Is JIT compilation?
        • 32.1.1. JIT Accelerated Operations
        • 32.1.2. Inlining
        • 32.1.3. Optimization
      • 32.2. When to JIT?
      • 32.3. Configuration
      • 32.4. Extensibility
        • 32.4.1. Inlining Support for Extensions
        • 32.4.2. Pluggable JIT Providers
    • 33. Regression Tests
      • 33.1. Running the Tests
        • 33.1.1. Running the Tests Against a Temporary Installation
        • 33.1.2. Running the Tests Against an Existing Installation
        • 33.1.3. Additional Test Suites
        • 33.1.4. Locale and Encoding
        • 33.1.5. Custom Server Settings
        • 33.1.6. Extra Tests
      • 33.2. Test Evaluation
        • 33.2.1. Error Message Differences
        • 33.2.2. Locale Differences
        • 33.2.3. Date and Time Differences
        • 33.2.4. Floating-Point Differences
        • 33.2.5. Row Ordering Differences
        • 33.2.6. Insufficient Stack Depth
        • 33.2.7. The “random” Test
        • 33.2.8. Configuration Parameters
      • 33.3. Variant Comparison Files
      • 33.4. TAP Tests
        • 33.4.1. Environment Variables
      • 33.5. Test Coverage Examination
        • 33.5.1. Coverage with Autoconf and Make
        • 33.5.2. Coverage with Meson
    • IV. Client Interfaces
      • 34. libpq — C Library
        • 34.1. Database Connection Control Functions
        • 34.2. Connection Status Functions
        • 34.3. Command Execution Functions
        • 34.4. Asynchronous Command Processing
        • 34.5. Pipeline Mode
        • 34.6. Retrieving Query Results Row-by-Row
        • 34.7. Canceling Queries in Progress
        • 34.8. The Fast-Path Interface
        • 34.9. Asynchronous Notification
        • 34.10. Functions Associated with the COPY Command
        • 34.11. Control Functions
        • 34.12. Miscellaneous Functions
        • 34.13. Notice Processing
        • 34.14. Event System
        • 34.15. Environment Variables
        • 34.16. The Password File
        • 34.17. The Connection Service File
        • 34.18. LDAP Lookup of Connection Parameters
        • 34.19. SSL Support
        • 34.20. Behavior in Threaded Programs
        • 34.21. Building libpq Programs
        • 34.22. Example Programs
      • 35. Large Objects
        • 35.1. Introduction
        • 35.2. Implementation Features
        • 35.3. Client Interfaces
        • 35.4. Server-Side Functions
        • 35.5. Example Program
      • 36. ECPG — Embedded SQL in C
        • 36.1. The Concept
        • 36.2. Managing Database Connections
        • 36.3. Running SQL Commands
        • 36.4. Using Host Variables
        • 36.5. Dynamic SQL
        • 36.6. pgtypes Library
        • 36.7. Using Descriptor Areas
        • 36.8. Error Handling
        • 36.9. Preprocessor Directives
        • 36.10. Processing Embedded SQL Programs
        • 36.11. Library Functions
        • 36.12. Large Objects
        • 36.13. C++ Applications
        • 36.14. Embedded SQL Commands
        • 36.15. Informix Compatibility Mode
        • 36.16. Oracle Compatibility Mode
        • 36.17. Internals
      • 37. The Information Schema
        • 37.1. The Schema
        • 37.2. Data Types
        • 37.3. information_schema_catalog_name
        • 37.4. administrable_role_authorizations
        • 37.5. applicable_roles
        • 37.6. attributes
        • 37.7. character_sets
        • 37.8. check_constraint_routine_usage
        • 37.9. check_constraints
        • 37.10. collations
        • 37.11. collation_character_set_applicability
        • 37.12. column_column_usage
        • 37.13. column_domain_usage
        • 37.14. column_options
        • 37.15. column_privileges
        • 37.16. column_udt_usage
        • 37.17. columns
        • 37.18. constraint_column_usage
        • 37.19. constraint_table_usage
        • 37.20. data_type_privileges
        • 37.21. domain_constraints
        • 37.22. domain_udt_usage
        • 37.23. domains
        • 37.24. element_types
        • 37.25. enabled_roles
        • 37.26. foreign_data_wrapper_options
        • 37.27. foreign_data_wrappers
        • 37.28. foreign_server_options
        • 37.29. foreign_servers
        • 37.30. foreign_table_options
        • 37.31. foreign_tables
        • 37.32. key_column_usage
        • 37.33. parameters
        • 37.34. referential_constraints
        • 37.35. role_column_grants
        • 37.36. role_routine_grants
        • 37.37. role_table_grants
        • 37.38. role_udt_grants
        • 37.39. role_usage_grants
        • 37.40. routine_column_usage
        • 37.41. routine_privileges
        • 37.42. routine_routine_usage
        • 37.43. routine_sequence_usage
        • 37.44. routine_table_usage
        • 37.45. routines
        • 37.46. schemata
        • 37.47. sequences
        • 37.48. sql_features
        • 37.49. sql_implementation_info
        • 37.50. sql_parts
        • 37.51. sql_sizing
        • 37.52. table_constraints
        • 37.53. table_privileges
        • 37.54. tables
        • 37.55. transforms
        • 37.56. triggered_update_columns
        • 37.57. triggers
        • 37.58. udt_privileges
        • 37.59. usage_privileges
        • 37.60. user_defined_types
        • 37.61. user_mapping_options
        • 37.62. user_mappings
        • 37.63. view_column_usage
        • 37.64. view_routine_usage
        • 37.65. view_table_usage
        • 37.66. views
    • 34. libpq — C Library
      • 34.1. Database Connection Control Functions
        • 34.1.1. Connection Strings
        • 34.1.2. Parameter Key Words
      • 34.2. Connection Status Functions
      • 34.3. Command Execution Functions
        • 34.3.1. Main Functions
        • 34.3.2. Retrieving Query Result Information
        • 34.3.3. Retrieving Other Result Information
        • 34.3.4. Escaping Strings for Inclusion in SQL Commands
      • 34.4. Asynchronous Command Processing
      • 34.5. Pipeline Mode
        • 34.5.1. Using Pipeline Mode
        • 34.5.2. Functions Associated with Pipeline Mode
        • 34.5.3. When to Use Pipeline Mode
      • 34.6. Retrieving Query Results Row-by-Row
      • 34.7. Canceling Queries in Progress
      • 34.8. The Fast-Path Interface
      • 34.9. Asynchronous Notification
      • 34.10. Functions Associated with the COPY Command
        • 34.10.1. Functions for Sending COPY Data
        • 34.10.2. Functions for Receiving COPY Data
        • 34.10.3. Obsolete Functions for COPY
      • 34.11. Control Functions
      • 34.12. Miscellaneous Functions
      • 34.13. Notice Processing
      • 34.14. Event System
        • 34.14.1. Event Types
        • 34.14.2. Event Callback Procedure
        • 34.14.3. Event Support Functions
        • 34.14.4. Event Example
      • 34.15. Environment Variables
      • 34.16. The Password File
      • 34.17. The Connection Service File
      • 34.18. LDAP Lookup of Connection Parameters
      • 34.19. SSL Support
        • 34.19.1. Client Verification of Server Certificates
        • 34.19.2. Client Certificates
        • 34.19.3. Protection Provided in Different Modes
        • 34.19.4. SSL Client File Usage
        • 34.19.5. SSL Library Initialization
      • 34.20. Behavior in Threaded Programs
      • 34.21. Building libpq Programs
      • 34.22. Example Programs
    • 35. Large Objects
      • 35.1. Introduction
      • 35.2. Implementation Features
      • 35.3. Client Interfaces
        • 35.3.1. Creating a Large Object
        • 35.3.2. Importing a Large Object
        • 35.3.3. Exporting a Large Object
        • 35.3.4. Opening an Existing Large Object
        • 35.3.5. Writing Data to a Large Object
        • 35.3.6. Reading Data from a Large Object
        • 35.3.7. Seeking in a Large Object
        • 35.3.8. Obtaining the Seek Position of a Large Object
        • 35.3.9. Truncating a Large Object
        • 35.3.10. Closing a Large Object Descriptor
        • 35.3.11. Removing a Large Object
      • 35.4. Server-Side Functions
      • 35.5. Example Program
    • 36. ECPG — Embedded SQL in C
      • 36.1. The Concept
      • 36.2. Managing Database Connections
        • 36.2.1. Connecting to the Database Server
        • 36.2.2. Choosing a Connection
        • 36.2.3. Closing a Connection
      • 36.3. Running SQL Commands
        • 36.3.1. Executing SQL Statements
        • 36.3.2. Using Cursors
        • 36.3.3. Managing Transactions
        • 36.3.4. Prepared Statements
      • 36.4. Using Host Variables
        • 36.4.1. Overview
        • 36.4.2. Declare Sections
        • 36.4.3. Retrieving Query Results
        • 36.4.4. Type Mapping
        • 36.4.5. Handling Nonprimitive SQL Data Types
        • 36.4.6. Indicators
      • 36.5. Dynamic SQL
        • 36.5.1. Executing Statements without a Result Set
        • 36.5.2. Executing a Statement with Input Parameters
        • 36.5.3. Executing a Statement with a Result Set
      • 36.6. pgtypes Library
        • 36.6.1. Character Strings
        • 36.6.2. The numeric Type
        • 36.6.3. The date Type
        • 36.6.4. The timestamp Type
        • 36.6.5. The interval Type
        • 36.6.6. The decimal Type
        • 36.6.7. errno Values of pgtypeslib
        • 36.6.8. Special Constants of pgtypeslib
      • 36.7. Using Descriptor Areas
        • 36.7.1. Named SQL Descriptor Areas
        • 36.7.2. SQLDA Descriptor Areas
      • 36.8. Error Handling
        • 36.8.1. Setting Callbacks
        • 36.8.2. sqlca
        • 36.8.3. SQLSTATE vs. SQLCODE
      • 36.9. Preprocessor Directives
        • 36.9.1. Including Files
        • 36.9.2. The define and undef Directives
        • 36.9.3. ifdef, ifndef, elif, else, and endif Directives
      • 36.10. Processing Embedded SQL Programs
      • 36.11. Library Functions
      • 36.12. Large Objects
      • 36.13. C++ Applications
        • 36.13.1. Scope for Host Variables
        • 36.13.2. C++ Application Development with External C Module
      • 36.14. Embedded SQL Commands
        • ALLOCATE DESCRIPTOR
        • CONNECT
        • DEALLOCATE DESCRIPTOR
        • DECLARE
        • DECLARE STATEMENT
        • DESCRIBE
        • DISCONNECT
        • EXECUTE IMMEDIATE
        • GET DESCRIPTOR
        • OPEN
        • PREPARE
        • SET AUTOCOMMIT
        • SET CONNECTION
        • SET DESCRIPTOR
        • TYPE
        • VAR
        • WHENEVER
      • 36.15. Informix Compatibility Mode
        • 36.15.1. Additional Types
        • 36.15.2. Additional/Missing Embedded SQL Statements
        • 36.15.3. Informix-compatible SQLDA Descriptor Areas
        • 36.15.4. Additional Functions
        • 36.15.5. Additional Constants
      • 36.16. Oracle Compatibility Mode
      • 36.17. Internals
    • 37. The Information Schema
      • 37.1. The Schema
      • 37.2. Data Types
      • 37.3. information_schema_catalog_name
      • 37.4. administrable_role_authorizations
      • 37.5. applicable_roles
      • 37.6. attributes
      • 37.7. character_sets
      • 37.8. check_constraint_routine_usage
      • 37.9. check_constraints
      • 37.10. collations
      • 37.11. collation_character_set_applicability
      • 37.12. column_column_usage
      • 37.13. column_domain_usage
      • 37.14. column_options
      • 37.15. column_privileges
      • 37.16. column_udt_usage
      • 37.17. columns
      • 37.18. constraint_column_usage
      • 37.19. constraint_table_usage
      • 37.20. data_type_privileges
      • 37.21. domain_constraints
      • 37.22. domain_udt_usage
      • 37.23. domains
      • 37.24. element_types
      • 37.25. enabled_roles
      • 37.26. foreign_data_wrapper_options
      • 37.27. foreign_data_wrappers
      • 37.28. foreign_server_options
      • 37.29. foreign_servers
      • 37.30. foreign_table_options
      • 37.31. foreign_tables
      • 37.32. key_column_usage
      • 37.33. parameters
      • 37.34. referential_constraints
      • 37.35. role_column_grants
      • 37.36. role_routine_grants
      • 37.37. role_table_grants
      • 37.38. role_udt_grants
      • 37.39. role_usage_grants
      • 37.40. routine_column_usage
      • 37.41. routine_privileges
      • 37.42. routine_routine_usage
      • 37.43. routine_sequence_usage
      • 37.44. routine_table_usage
      • 37.45. routines
      • 37.46. schemata
      • 37.47. sequences
      • 37.48. sql_features
      • 37.49. sql_implementation_info
      • 37.50. sql_parts
      • 37.51. sql_sizing
      • 37.52. table_constraints
      • 37.53. table_privileges
      • 37.54. tables
      • 37.55. transforms
      • 37.56. triggered_update_columns
      • 37.57. triggers
      • 37.58. udt_privileges
      • 37.59. usage_privileges
      • 37.60. user_defined_types
      • 37.61. user_mapping_options
      • 37.62. user_mappings
      • 37.63. view_column_usage
      • 37.64. view_routine_usage
      • 37.65. view_table_usage
      • 37.66. views
    • V. Server Programming
      • 38. Extending SQL
        • 38.1. How Extensibility Works
        • 38.2. The PostgreSQL Type System
        • 38.3. User-Defined Functions
        • 38.4. User-Defined Procedures
        • 38.5. Query Language (SQL) Functions
        • 38.6. Function Overloading
        • 38.7. Function Volatility Categories
        • 38.8. Procedural Language Functions
        • 38.9. Internal Functions
        • 38.10. C-Language Functions
        • 38.11. Function Optimization Information
        • 38.12. User-Defined Aggregates
        • 38.13. User-Defined Types
        • 38.14. User-Defined Operators
        • 38.15. Operator Optimization Information
        • 38.16. Interfacing Extensions to Indexes
        • 38.17. Packaging Related Objects into an Extension
        • 38.18. Extension Building Infrastructure
      • 39. Triggers
        • 39.1. Overview of Trigger Behavior
        • 39.2. Visibility of Data Changes
        • 39.3. Writing Trigger Functions in C
        • 39.4. A Complete Trigger Example
      • 40. Event Triggers
        • 40.1. Overview of Event Trigger Behavior
        • 40.2. Event Trigger Firing Matrix
        • 40.3. Writing Event Trigger Functions in C
        • 40.4. A Complete Event Trigger Example
        • 40.5. A Table Rewrite Event Trigger Example
      • 41. The Rule System
        • 41.1. The Query Tree
        • 41.2. Views and the Rule System
        • 41.3. Materialized Views
        • 41.4. Rules on INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE
        • 41.5. Rules and Privileges
        • 41.6. Rules and Command Status
        • 41.7. Rules Versus Triggers
      • 42. Procedural Languages
        • 42.1. Installing Procedural Languages
      • 43. PL/pgSQL — SQL Procedural Language
        • 43.1. Overview
        • 43.2. Structure of PL/pgSQL
        • 43.3. Declarations
        • 43.4. Expressions
        • 43.5. Basic Statements
        • 43.6. Control Structures
        • 43.7. Cursors
        • 43.8. Transaction Management
        • 43.9. Errors and Messages
        • 43.10. Trigger Functions
        • 43.11. PL/pgSQL under the Hood
        • 43.12. Tips for Developing in PL/pgSQL
        • 43.13. Porting from Oracle PL/SQL
      • 44. PL/Tcl — Tcl Procedural Language
        • 44.1. Overview
        • 44.2. PL/Tcl Functions and Arguments
        • 44.3. Data Values in PL/Tcl
        • 44.4. Global Data in PL/Tcl
        • 44.5. Database Access from PL/Tcl
        • 44.6. Trigger Functions in PL/Tcl
        • 44.7. Event Trigger Functions in PL/Tcl
        • 44.8. Error Handling in PL/Tcl
        • 44.9. Explicit Subtransactions in PL/Tcl
        • 44.10. Transaction Management
        • 44.11. PL/Tcl Configuration
        • 44.12. Tcl Procedure Names
      • 45. PL/Perl — Perl Procedural Language
        • 45.1. PL/Perl Functions and Arguments
        • 45.2. Data Values in PL/Perl
        • 45.3. Built-in Functions
        • 45.4. Global Values in PL/Perl
        • 45.5. Trusted and Untrusted PL/Perl
        • 45.6. PL/Perl Triggers
        • 45.7. PL/Perl Event Triggers
        • 45.8. PL/Perl Under the Hood
      • 46. PL/Python — Python Procedural Language
        • 46.1. PL/Python Functions
        • 46.2. Data Values
        • 46.3. Sharing Data
        • 46.4. Anonymous Code Blocks
        • 46.5. Trigger Functions
        • 46.6. Database Access
        • 46.7. Explicit Subtransactions
        • 46.8. Transaction Management
        • 46.9. Utility Functions
        • 46.10. Python 2 vs. Python 3
        • 46.11. Environment Variables
      • 47. Server Programming Interface
        • 47.1. Interface Functions
        • 47.2. Interface Support Functions
        • 47.3. Memory Management
        • 47.4. Transaction Management
        • 47.5. Visibility of Data Changes
        • 47.6. Examples
      • 48. Background Worker Processes
      • 49. Logical Decoding
        • 49.1. Logical Decoding Examples
        • 49.2. Logical Decoding Concepts
        • 49.3. Streaming Replication Protocol Interface
        • 49.4. Logical Decoding SQL Interface
        • 49.5. System Catalogs Related to Logical Decoding
        • 49.6. Logical Decoding Output Plugins
        • 49.7. Logical Decoding Output Writers
        • 49.8. Synchronous Replication Support for Logical Decoding
        • 49.9. Streaming of Large Transactions for Logical Decoding
        • 49.10. Two-phase Commit Support for Logical Decoding
      • 50. Replication Progress Tracking
      • 51. Archive Modules
        • 51.1. Initialization Functions
        • 51.2. Archive Module Callbacks
    • 38. Extending SQL
      • 38.1. How Extensibility Works
      • 38.2. The PostgreSQL Type System
        • 38.2.1. Base Types
        • 38.2.2. Container Types
        • 38.2.3. Domains
        • 38.2.4. Pseudo-Types
        • 38.2.5. Polymorphic Types
      • 38.3. User-Defined Functions
      • 38.4. User-Defined Procedures
      • 38.5. Query Language (SQL) Functions
        • 38.5.1. Arguments for SQL Functions
        • 38.5.2. SQL Functions on Base Types
        • 38.5.3. SQL Functions on Composite Types
        • 38.5.4. SQL Functions with Output Parameters
        • 38.5.5. SQL Procedures with Output Parameters
        • 38.5.6. SQL Functions with Variable Numbers of Arguments
        • 38.5.7. SQL Functions with Default Values for Arguments
        • 38.5.8. SQL Functions as Table Sources
        • 38.5.9. SQL Functions Returning Sets
        • 38.5.10. SQL Functions Returning TABLE
        • 38.5.11. Polymorphic SQL Functions
        • 38.5.12. SQL Functions with Collations
      • 38.6. Function Overloading
      • 38.7. Function Volatility Categories
      • 38.8. Procedural Language Functions
      • 38.9. Internal Functions
      • 38.10. C-Language Functions
        • 38.10.1. Dynamic Loading
        • 38.10.2. Base Types in C-Language Functions
        • 38.10.3. Version 1 Calling Conventions
        • 38.10.4. Writing Code
        • 38.10.5. Compiling and Linking Dynamically-Loaded Functions
        • 38.10.6. Composite-Type Arguments
        • 38.10.7. Returning Rows (Composite Types)
        • 38.10.8. Returning Sets
        • 38.10.9. Polymorphic Arguments and Return Types
        • 38.10.10. Shared Memory and LWLocks
        • 38.10.11. Using C++ for Extensibility
      • 38.11. Function Optimization Information
      • 38.12. User-Defined Aggregates
        • 38.12.1. Moving-Aggregate Mode
        • 38.12.2. Polymorphic and Variadic Aggregates
        • 38.12.3. Ordered-Set Aggregates
        • 38.12.4. Partial Aggregation
        • 38.12.5. Support Functions for Aggregates
      • 38.13. User-Defined Types
        • 38.13.1. TOAST Considerations
      • 38.14. User-Defined Operators
      • 38.15. Operator Optimization Information
        • 38.15.1. COMMUTATOR
        • 38.15.2. NEGATOR
        • 38.15.3. RESTRICT
        • 38.15.4. JOIN
        • 38.15.5. HASHES
        • 38.15.6. MERGES
      • 38.16. Interfacing Extensions to Indexes
        • 38.16.1. Index Methods and Operator Classes
        • 38.16.2. Index Method Strategies
        • 38.16.3. Index Method Support Routines
        • 38.16.4. An Example
        • 38.16.5. Operator Classes and Operator Families
        • 38.16.6. System Dependencies on Operator Classes
        • 38.16.7. Ordering Operators
        • 38.16.8. Special Features of Operator Classes
      • 38.17. Packaging Related Objects into an Extension
        • 38.17.1. Extension Files
        • 38.17.2. Extension Relocatability
        • 38.17.3. Extension Configuration Tables
        • 38.17.4. Extension Updates
        • 38.17.5. Installing Extensions Using Update Scripts
        • 38.17.6. Security Considerations for Extensions
        • 38.17.7. Extension Example
      • 38.18. Extension Building Infrastructure
    • 39. Triggers
      • 39.1. Overview of Trigger Behavior
      • 39.2. Visibility of Data Changes
      • 39.3. Writing Trigger Functions in C
      • 39.4. A Complete Trigger Example
    • 40. Event Triggers
      • 40.1. Overview of Event Trigger Behavior
      • 40.2. Event Trigger Firing Matrix
      • 40.3. Writing Event Trigger Functions in C
      • 40.4. A Complete Event Trigger Example
      • 40.5. A Table Rewrite Event Trigger Example
    • 41. The Rule System
      • 41.1. The Query Tree
      • 41.2. Views and the Rule System
        • 41.2.1. How SELECT Rules Work
        • 41.2.2. View Rules in Non-SELECT Statements
        • 41.2.3. The Power of Views in PostgreSQL
        • 41.2.4. Updating a View
      • 41.3. Materialized Views
      • 41.4. Rules on INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE
        • 41.4.1. How Update Rules Work
        • 41.4.2. Cooperation with Views
      • 41.5. Rules and Privileges
      • 41.6. Rules and Command Status
      • 41.7. Rules Versus Triggers
    • 42. Procedural Languages
      • 42.1. Installing Procedural Languages
    • 43. PL/pgSQL — SQL Procedural Language
      • 43.1. Overview
        • 43.1.1. Advantages of Using PL/pgSQL
        • 43.1.2. Supported Argument and Result Data Types
      • 43.2. Structure of PL/pgSQL
      • 43.3. Declarations
        • 43.3.1. Declaring Function Parameters
        • 43.3.2. ALIAS
        • 43.3.3. Copying Types
        • 43.3.4. Row Types
        • 43.3.5. Record Types
        • 43.3.6. Collation of PL/pgSQL Variables
      • 43.4. Expressions
      • 43.5. Basic Statements
        • 43.5.1. Assignment
        • 43.5.2. Executing SQL Commands
        • 43.5.3. Executing a Command with a Single-Row Result
        • 43.5.4. Executing Dynamic Commands
        • 43.5.5. Obtaining the Result Status
        • 43.5.6. Doing Nothing At All
      • 43.6. Control Structures
        • 43.6.1. Returning from a Function
        • 43.6.2. Returning from a Procedure
        • 43.6.3. Calling a Procedure
        • 43.6.4. Conditionals
        • 43.6.5. Simple Loops
        • 43.6.6. Looping through Query Results
        • 43.6.7. Looping through Arrays
        • 43.6.8. Trapping Errors
        • 43.6.9. Obtaining Execution Location Information
      • 43.7. Cursors
        • 43.7.1. Declaring Cursor Variables
        • 43.7.2. Opening Cursors
        • 43.7.3. Using Cursors
        • 43.7.4. Looping through a Cursor’s Result
      • 43.8. Transaction Management
      • 43.9. Errors and Messages
        • 43.9.1. Reporting Errors and Messages
        • 43.9.2. Checking Assertions
      • 43.10. Trigger Functions
        • 43.10.1. Triggers on Data Changes
        • 43.10.2. Triggers on Events
      • 43.11. PL/pgSQL under the Hood
        • 43.11.1. Variable Substitution
        • 43.11.2. Plan Caching
      • 43.12. Tips for Developing in PL/pgSQL
        • 43.12.1. Handling of Quotation Marks
        • 43.12.2. Additional Compile-Time and Run-Time Checks
      • 43.13. Porting from Oracle PL/SQL
        • 43.13.1. Porting Examples
        • 43.13.2. Other Things to Watch For
        • 43.13.3. Appendix
    • 44. PL/Tcl — Tcl Procedural Language
      • 44.1. Overview
      • 44.2. PL/Tcl Functions and Arguments
      • 44.3. Data Values in PL/Tcl
      • 44.4. Global Data in PL/Tcl
      • 44.5. Database Access from PL/Tcl
      • 44.6. Trigger Functions in PL/Tcl
      • 44.7. Event Trigger Functions in PL/Tcl
      • 44.8. Error Handling in PL/Tcl
      • 44.9. Explicit Subtransactions in PL/Tcl
      • 44.10. Transaction Management
      • 44.11. PL/Tcl Configuration
      • 44.12. Tcl Procedure Names
    • 45. PL/Perl — Perl Procedural Language
      • 45.1. PL/Perl Functions and Arguments
      • 45.2. Data Values in PL/Perl
      • 45.3. Built-in Functions
        • 45.3.1. Database Access from PL/Perl
        • 45.3.2. Utility Functions in PL/Perl
      • 45.4. Global Values in PL/Perl
      • 45.5. Trusted and Untrusted PL/Perl
      • 45.6. PL/Perl Triggers
      • 45.7. PL/Perl Event Triggers
      • 45.8. PL/Perl Under the Hood
        • 45.8.1. Configuration
        • 45.8.2. Limitations and Missing Features
    • 46. PL/Python — Python Procedural Language
      • 46.1. PL/Python Functions
      • 46.2. Data Values
        • 46.2.1. Data Type Mapping
        • 46.2.2. Null, None
        • 46.2.3. Arrays, Lists
        • 46.2.4. Composite Types
        • 46.2.5. Set-Returning Functions
      • 46.3. Sharing Data
      • 46.4. Anonymous Code Blocks
      • 46.5. Trigger Functions
      • 46.6. Database Access
        • 46.6.1. Database Access Functions
        • 46.6.2. Trapping Errors
      • 46.7. Explicit Subtransactions
        • 46.7.1. Subtransaction Context Managers
      • 46.8. Transaction Management
      • 46.9. Utility Functions
      • 46.10. Python 2 vs. Python 3
      • 46.11. Environment Variables
    • 47. Server Programming Interface
      • 47.1. Interface Functions
        • SPI_connect
        • SPI_finish
        • SPI_execute
        • SPI_exec
        • SPI_execute_extended
        • SPI_execute_with_args
        • SPI_prepare
        • SPI_prepare_cursor
        • SPI_prepare_extended
        • SPI_prepare_params
        • SPI_getargcount
        • SPI_getargtypeid
        • SPI_is_cursor_plan
        • SPI_execute_plan
        • SPI_execute_plan_extended
        • SPI_execute_plan_with_paramlist
        • SPI_execp
        • SPI_cursor_open
        • SPI_cursor_open_with_args
        • SPI_cursor_open_with_paramlist
        • SPI_cursor_parse_open
        • SPI_cursor_find
        • SPI_cursor_fetch
        • SPI_cursor_move
        • SPI_scroll_cursor_fetch
        • SPI_scroll_cursor_move
        • SPI_cursor_close
        • SPI_keepplan
        • SPI_saveplan
        • SPI_register_relation
        • SPI_unregister_relation
        • SPI_register_trigger_data
      • 47.2. Interface Support Functions
        • SPI_fname
        • SPI_fnumber
        • SPI_getvalue
        • SPI_getbinval
        • SPI_gettype
        • SPI_gettypeid
        • SPI_getrelname
        • SPI_getnspname
        • SPI_result_code_string
      • 47.3. Memory Management
        • SPI_palloc
        • SPI_repalloc
        • SPI_pfree
        • SPI_copytuple
        • SPI_returntuple
        • SPI_modifytuple
        • SPI_freetuple
        • SPI_freetuptable
        • SPI_freeplan
      • 47.4. Transaction Management
        • SPI_commit
        • SPI_rollback
        • SPI_start_transaction
      • 47.5. Visibility of Data Changes
      • 47.6. Examples
    • 48. Background Worker Processes
    • 49. Logical Decoding
      • 49.1. Logical Decoding Examples
      • 49.2. Logical Decoding Concepts
        • 49.2.1. Logical Decoding
        • 49.2.2. Replication Slots
        • 49.2.3. Output Plugins
        • 49.2.4. Exported Snapshots
      • 49.3. Streaming Replication Protocol Interface
      • 49.4. Logical Decoding SQL Interface
      • 49.5. System Catalogs Related to Logical Decoding
      • 49.6. Logical Decoding Output Plugins
        • 49.6.1. Initialization Function
        • 49.6.2. Capabilities
        • 49.6.3. Output Modes
        • 49.6.4. Output Plugin Callbacks
        • 49.6.5. Functions for Producing Output
      • 49.7. Logical Decoding Output Writers
      • 49.8. Synchronous Replication Support for Logical Decoding
        • 49.8.1. Overview
        • 49.8.2. Caveats
      • 49.9. Streaming of Large Transactions for Logical Decoding
      • 49.10. Two-phase Commit Support for Logical Decoding
    • 50. Replication Progress Tracking
    • 51. Archive Modules
      • 51.1. Initialization Functions
      • 51.2. Archive Module Callbacks
        • 51.2.1. Startup Callback
        • 51.2.2. Check Callback
        • 51.2.3. Archive Callback
        • 51.2.4. Shutdown Callback
    • VI. Reference
      • I. SQL Commands
        • ABORT
        • ALTER AGGREGATE
        • ALTER COLLATION
        • ALTER CONVERSION
        • ALTER DATABASE
        • ALTER DEFAULT PRIVILEGES
        • ALTER DOMAIN
        • ALTER EVENT TRIGGER
        • ALTER EXTENSION
        • ALTER FOREIGN DATA WRAPPER
        • ALTER FOREIGN TABLE
        • ALTER FUNCTION
        • ALTER GROUP
        • ALTER INDEX
        • ALTER LANGUAGE
        • ALTER LARGE OBJECT
        • ALTER MATERIALIZED VIEW
        • ALTER OPERATOR
        • ALTER OPERATOR CLASS
        • ALTER OPERATOR FAMILY
        • ALTER POLICY
        • ALTER PROCEDURE
        • ALTER PUBLICATION
        • ALTER ROLE
        • ALTER ROUTINE
        • ALTER RULE
        • ALTER SCHEMA
        • ALTER SEQUENCE
        • ALTER SERVER
        • ALTER STATISTICS
        • ALTER SUBSCRIPTION
        • ALTER SYSTEM
        • ALTER TABLE
        • ALTER TABLESPACE
        • ALTER TEXT SEARCH CONFIGURATION
        • ALTER TEXT SEARCH DICTIONARY
        • ALTER TEXT SEARCH PARSER
        • ALTER TEXT SEARCH TEMPLATE
        • ALTER TRIGGER
        • ALTER TYPE
        • ALTER USER
        • ALTER USER MAPPING
        • ALTER VIEW
        • ANALYZE
        • BEGIN
        • CALL
        • CHECKPOINT
        • CLOSE
        • CLUSTER
        • COMMENT
        • COMMIT
        • COMMIT PREPARED
        • COPY
        • CREATE ACCESS METHOD
        • CREATE AGGREGATE
        • CREATE CAST
        • CREATE COLLATION
        • CREATE CONVERSION
        • CREATE DATABASE
        • CREATE DOMAIN
        • CREATE EVENT TRIGGER
        • CREATE EXTENSION
        • CREATE FOREIGN DATA WRAPPER
        • CREATE FOREIGN TABLE
        • CREATE FUNCTION
        • CREATE GROUP
        • CREATE INDEX
        • CREATE LANGUAGE
        • CREATE MATERIALIZED VIEW
        • CREATE OPERATOR
        • CREATE OPERATOR CLASS
        • CREATE OPERATOR FAMILY
        • CREATE POLICY
        • CREATE PROCEDURE
        • CREATE PUBLICATION
        • CREATE ROLE
        • CREATE RULE
        • CREATE SCHEMA
        • CREATE SEQUENCE
        • CREATE SERVER
        • CREATE STATISTICS
        • CREATE SUBSCRIPTION
        • CREATE TABLE
        • CREATE TABLE AS
        • CREATE TABLESPACE
        • CREATE TEXT SEARCH CONFIGURATION
        • CREATE TEXT SEARCH DICTIONARY
        • CREATE TEXT SEARCH PARSER
        • CREATE TEXT SEARCH TEMPLATE
        • CREATE TRANSFORM
        • CREATE TRIGGER
        • CREATE TYPE
        • CREATE USER
        • CREATE USER MAPPING
        • CREATE VIEW
        • DEALLOCATE
        • DECLARE
        • DELETE
        • DISCARD
        • DO
        • DROP ACCESS METHOD
        • DROP AGGREGATE
        • DROP CAST
        • DROP COLLATION
        • DROP CONVERSION
        • DROP DATABASE
        • DROP DOMAIN
        • DROP EVENT TRIGGER
        • DROP EXTENSION
        • DROP FOREIGN DATA WRAPPER
        • DROP FOREIGN TABLE
        • DROP FUNCTION
        • DROP GROUP
        • DROP INDEX
        • DROP LANGUAGE
        • DROP MATERIALIZED VIEW
        • DROP OPERATOR
        • DROP OPERATOR CLASS
        • DROP OPERATOR FAMILY
        • DROP OWNED
        • DROP POLICY
        • DROP PROCEDURE
        • DROP PUBLICATION
        • DROP ROLE
        • DROP ROUTINE
        • DROP RULE
        • DROP SCHEMA
        • DROP SEQUENCE
        • DROP SERVER
        • DROP STATISTICS
        • DROP SUBSCRIPTION
        • DROP TABLE
        • DROP TABLESPACE
        • DROP TEXT SEARCH CONFIGURATION
        • DROP TEXT SEARCH DICTIONARY
        • DROP TEXT SEARCH PARSER
        • DROP TEXT SEARCH TEMPLATE
        • DROP TRANSFORM
        • DROP TRIGGER
        • DROP TYPE
        • DROP USER
        • DROP USER MAPPING
        • DROP VIEW
        • END
        • EXECUTE
        • EXPLAIN
        • FETCH
        • GRANT
        • IMPORT FOREIGN SCHEMA
        • INSERT
        • LISTEN
        • LOAD
        • LOCK
        • MERGE
        • MOVE
        • NOTIFY
        • PREPARE
        • PREPARE TRANSACTION
        • REASSIGN OWNED
        • REFRESH MATERIALIZED VIEW
        • REINDEX
        • RELEASE SAVEPOINT
        • RESET
        • REVOKE
        • ROLLBACK
        • ROLLBACK PREPARED
        • ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT
        • SAVEPOINT
        • SECURITY LABEL
        • SELECT
        • SELECT INTO
        • SET
        • SET CONSTRAINTS
        • SET ROLE
        • SET SESSION AUTHORIZATION
        • SET TRANSACTION
        • SHOW
        • START TRANSACTION
        • TRUNCATE
        • UNLISTEN
        • UPDATE
        • VACUUM
        • VALUES
      • II. PostgreSQL Client Applications
        • clusterdb
        • createdb
        • createuser
        • dropdb
        • dropuser
        • ecpg
        • pg_amcheck
        • pg_basebackup
        • pgbench
        • pg_config
        • pg_dump
        • pg_dumpall
        • pg_isready
        • pg_receivewal
        • pg_recvlogical
        • pg_restore
        • pg_verifybackup
        • psql
        • reindexdb
        • vacuumdb
      • III. PostgreSQL Server Applications
        • initdb
        • pg_archivecleanup
        • pg_checksums
        • pg_controldata
        • pg_ctl
        • pg_resetwal
        • pg_rewind
        • pg_test_fsync
        • pg_test_timing
        • pg_upgrade
        • pg_waldump
        • postgres
    • I. SQL Commands
      • ABORT
      • ALTER AGGREGATE
      • ALTER COLLATION
      • ALTER CONVERSION
      • ALTER DATABASE
      • ALTER DEFAULT PRIVILEGES
      • ALTER DOMAIN
      • ALTER EVENT TRIGGER
      • ALTER EXTENSION
      • ALTER FOREIGN DATA WRAPPER
      • ALTER FOREIGN TABLE
      • ALTER FUNCTION
      • ALTER GROUP
      • ALTER INDEX
      • ALTER LANGUAGE
      • ALTER LARGE OBJECT
      • ALTER MATERIALIZED VIEW
      • ALTER OPERATOR
      • ALTER OPERATOR CLASS
      • ALTER OPERATOR FAMILY
      • ALTER POLICY
      • ALTER PROCEDURE
      • ALTER PUBLICATION
      • ALTER ROLE
      • ALTER ROUTINE
      • ALTER RULE
      • ALTER SCHEMA
      • ALTER SEQUENCE
      • ALTER SERVER
      • ALTER STATISTICS
      • ALTER SUBSCRIPTION
      • ALTER SYSTEM
      • ALTER TABLE
      • ALTER TABLESPACE
      • ALTER TEXT SEARCH CONFIGURATION
      • ALTER TEXT SEARCH DICTIONARY
      • ALTER TEXT SEARCH PARSER
      • ALTER TEXT SEARCH TEMPLATE
      • ALTER TRIGGER
      • ALTER TYPE
      • ALTER USER
      • ALTER USER MAPPING
      • ALTER VIEW
      • ANALYZE
      • BEGIN
      • CALL
      • CHECKPOINT
      • CLOSE
      • CLUSTER
      • COMMENT
      • COMMIT
      • COMMIT PREPARED
      • COPY
      • CREATE ACCESS METHOD
      • CREATE AGGREGATE
      • CREATE CAST
      • CREATE COLLATION
      • CREATE CONVERSION
      • CREATE DATABASE
      • CREATE DOMAIN
      • CREATE EVENT TRIGGER
      • CREATE EXTENSION
      • CREATE FOREIGN DATA WRAPPER
      • CREATE FOREIGN TABLE
      • CREATE FUNCTION
      • CREATE GROUP
      • CREATE INDEX
      • CREATE LANGUAGE
      • CREATE MATERIALIZED VIEW
      • CREATE OPERATOR
      • CREATE OPERATOR CLASS
      • CREATE OPERATOR FAMILY
      • CREATE POLICY
      • CREATE PROCEDURE
      • CREATE PUBLICATION
      • CREATE ROLE
      • CREATE RULE
      • CREATE SCHEMA
      • CREATE SEQUENCE
      • CREATE SERVER
      • CREATE STATISTICS
      • CREATE SUBSCRIPTION
      • CREATE TABLE
      • CREATE TABLE AS
      • CREATE TABLESPACE
      • CREATE TEXT SEARCH CONFIGURATION
      • CREATE TEXT SEARCH DICTIONARY
      • CREATE TEXT SEARCH PARSER
      • CREATE TEXT SEARCH TEMPLATE
      • CREATE TRANSFORM
      • CREATE TRIGGER
      • CREATE TYPE
      • CREATE USER
      • CREATE USER MAPPING
      • CREATE VIEW
      • DEALLOCATE
      • DECLARE
      • DELETE
      • DISCARD
      • DO
      • DROP ACCESS METHOD
      • DROP AGGREGATE
      • DROP CAST
      • DROP COLLATION
      • DROP CONVERSION
      • DROP DATABASE
      • DROP DOMAIN
      • DROP EVENT TRIGGER
      • DROP EXTENSION
      • DROP FOREIGN DATA WRAPPER
      • DROP FOREIGN TABLE
      • DROP FUNCTION
      • DROP GROUP
      • DROP INDEX
      • DROP LANGUAGE
      • DROP MATERIALIZED VIEW
      • DROP OPERATOR
      • DROP OPERATOR CLASS
      • DROP OPERATOR FAMILY
      • DROP OWNED
      • DROP POLICY
      • DROP PROCEDURE
      • DROP PUBLICATION
      • DROP ROLE
      • DROP ROUTINE
      • DROP RULE
      • DROP SCHEMA
      • DROP SEQUENCE
      • DROP SERVER
      • DROP STATISTICS
      • DROP SUBSCRIPTION
      • DROP TABLE
      • DROP TABLESPACE
      • DROP TEXT SEARCH CONFIGURATION
      • DROP TEXT SEARCH DICTIONARY
      • DROP TEXT SEARCH PARSER
      • DROP TEXT SEARCH TEMPLATE
      • DROP TRANSFORM
      • DROP TRIGGER
      • DROP TYPE
      • DROP USER
      • DROP USER MAPPING
      • DROP VIEW
      • END
      • EXECUTE
      • EXPLAIN
      • FETCH
      • GRANT
      • IMPORT FOREIGN SCHEMA
      • INSERT
      • LISTEN
      • LOAD
      • LOCK
      • MERGE
      • MOVE
      • NOTIFY
      • PREPARE
      • PREPARE TRANSACTION
      • REASSIGN OWNED
      • REFRESH MATERIALIZED VIEW
      • REINDEX
      • RELEASE SAVEPOINT
      • RESET
      • REVOKE
      • ROLLBACK
      • ROLLBACK PREPARED
      • ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT
      • SAVEPOINT
      • SECURITY LABEL
      • SELECT
      • SELECT INTO
      • SET
      • SET CONSTRAINTS
      • SET ROLE
      • SET SESSION AUTHORIZATION
      • SET TRANSACTION
      • SHOW
      • START TRANSACTION
      • TRUNCATE
      • UNLISTEN
      • UPDATE
      • VACUUM
      • VALUES
    • II. PostgreSQL Client Applications
      • clusterdb
      • createdb
      • createuser
      • dropdb
      • dropuser
      • ecpg
      • pg_amcheck
      • pg_basebackup
      • pgbench
      • pg_config
      • pg_dump
      • pg_dumpall
      • pg_isready
      • pg_receivewal
      • pg_recvlogical
      • pg_restore
      • pg_verifybackup
      • psql
      • reindexdb
      • vacuumdb
    • III. PostgreSQL Server Applications
      • initdb
      • pg_archivecleanup
      • pg_checksums
      • pg_controldata
      • pg_ctl
      • pg_resetwal
      • pg_rewind
      • pg_test_fsync
      • pg_test_timing
      • pg_upgrade
      • pg_waldump
      • postgres
    • VII. Internals
      • 52. Overview of PostgreSQL Internals
        • 52.1. The Path of a Query
        • 52.2. How Connections Are Established
        • 52.3. The Parser Stage
        • 52.4. The PostgreSQL Rule System
        • 52.5. Planner/Optimizer
        • 52.6. Executor
      • 53. System Catalogs
        • 53.1. Overview
        • 53.2. pg_aggregate
        • 53.3. pg_am
        • 53.4. pg_amop
        • 53.5. pg_amproc
        • 53.6. pg_attrdef
        • 53.7. pg_attribute
        • 53.8. pg_authid
        • 53.9. pg_auth_members
        • 53.10. pg_cast
        • 53.11. pg_class
        • 53.12. pg_collation
        • 53.13. pg_constraint
        • 53.14. pg_conversion
        • 53.15. pg_database
        • 53.16. pg_db_role_setting
        • 53.17. pg_default_acl
        • 53.18. pg_depend
        • 53.19. pg_description
        • 53.20. pg_enum
        • 53.21. pg_event_trigger
        • 53.22. pg_extension
        • 53.23. pg_foreign_data_wrapper
        • 53.24. pg_foreign_server
        • 53.25. pg_foreign_table
        • 53.26. pg_index
        • 53.27. pg_inherits
        • 53.28. pg_init_privs
        • 53.29. pg_language
        • 53.30. pg_largeobject
        • 53.31. pg_largeobject_metadata
        • 53.32. pg_namespace
        • 53.33. pg_opclass
        • 53.34. pg_operator
        • 53.35. pg_opfamily
        • 53.36. pg_parameter_acl
        • 53.37. pg_partitioned_table
        • 53.38. pg_policy
        • 53.39. pg_proc
        • 53.40. pg_publication
        • 53.41. pg_publication_namespace
        • 53.42. pg_publication_rel
        • 53.43. pg_range
        • 53.44. pg_replication_origin
        • 53.45. pg_rewrite
        • 53.46. pg_seclabel
        • 53.47. pg_sequence
        • 53.48. pg_shdepend
        • 53.49. pg_shdescription
        • 53.50. pg_shseclabel
        • 53.51. pg_statistic
        • 53.52. pg_statistic_ext
        • 53.53. pg_statistic_ext_data
        • 53.54. pg_subscription
        • 53.55. pg_subscription_rel
        • 53.56. pg_tablespace
        • 53.57. pg_transform
        • 53.58. pg_trigger
        • 53.59. pg_ts_config
        • 53.60. pg_ts_config_map
        • 53.61. pg_ts_dict
        • 53.62. pg_ts_parser
        • 53.63. pg_ts_template
        • 53.64. pg_type
        • 53.65. pg_user_mapping
      • 54. System Views
        • 54.1. Overview
        • 54.2. pg_available_extensions
        • 54.3. pg_available_extension_versions
        • 54.4. pg_backend_memory_contexts
        • 54.5. pg_config
        • 54.6. pg_cursors
        • 54.7. pg_file_settings
        • 54.8. pg_group
        • 54.9. pg_hba_file_rules
        • 54.10. pg_ident_file_mappings
        • 54.11. pg_indexes
        • 54.12. pg_locks
        • 54.13. pg_matviews
        • 54.14. pg_policies
        • 54.15. pg_prepared_statements
        • 54.16. pg_prepared_xacts
        • 54.17. pg_publication_tables
        • 54.18. pg_replication_origin_status
        • 54.19. pg_replication_slots
        • 54.20. pg_roles
        • 54.21. pg_rules
        • 54.22. pg_seclabels
        • 54.23. pg_sequences
        • 54.24. pg_settings
        • 54.25. pg_shadow
        • 54.26. pg_shmem_allocations
        • 54.27. pg_stats
        • 54.28. pg_stats_ext
        • 54.29. pg_stats_ext_exprs
        • 54.30. pg_tables
        • 54.31. pg_timezone_abbrevs
        • 54.32. pg_timezone_names
        • 54.33. pg_user
        • 54.34. pg_user_mappings
        • 54.35. pg_views
      • 55. Frontend/Backend Protocol
        • 55.1. Overview
        • 55.2. Message Flow
        • 55.3. SASL Authentication
        • 55.4. Streaming Replication Protocol
        • 55.5. Logical Streaming Replication Protocol
        • 55.6. Message Data Types
        • 55.7. Message Formats
        • 55.8. Error and Notice Message Fields
        • 55.9. Logical Replication Message Formats
        • 55.10. Summary of Changes since Protocol 2.0
      • 56. PostgreSQL Coding Conventions
        • 56.1. Formatting
        • 56.2. Reporting Errors Within the Server
        • 56.3. Error Message Style Guide
        • 56.4. Miscellaneous Coding Conventions
      • 57. Native Language Support
        • 57.1. For the Translator
        • 57.2. For the Programmer
      • 58. Writing a Procedural Language Handler
      • 59. Writing a Foreign Data Wrapper
        • 59.1. Foreign Data Wrapper Functions
        • 59.2. Foreign Data Wrapper Callback Routines
        • 59.3. Foreign Data Wrapper Helper Functions
        • 59.4. Foreign Data Wrapper Query Planning
        • 59.5. Row Locking in Foreign Data Wrappers
      • 60. Writing a Table Sampling Method
        • 60.1. Sampling Method Support Functions
      • 61. Writing a Custom Scan Provider
        • 61.1. Creating Custom Scan Paths
        • 61.2. Creating Custom Scan Plans
        • 61.3. Executing Custom Scans
      • 62. Genetic Query Optimizer
        • 62.1. Query Handling as a Complex Optimization Problem
        • 62.2. Genetic Algorithms
        • 62.3. Genetic Query Optimization (GEQO) in PostgreSQL
        • 62.4. Further Reading
      • 63. Table Access Method Interface Definition
      • 64. Index Access Method Interface Definition
        • 64.1. Basic API Structure for Indexes
        • 64.2. Index Access Method Functions
        • 64.3. Index Scanning
        • 64.4. Index Locking Considerations
        • 64.5. Index Uniqueness Checks
        • 64.6. Index Cost Estimation Functions
      • 65. Generic WAL Records
      • 66. Custom WAL Resource Managers
      • 67. B-Tree Indexes
        • 67.1. Introduction
        • 67.2. Behavior of B-Tree Operator Classes
        • 67.3. B-Tree Support Functions
        • 67.4. Implementation
      • 68. GiST Indexes
        • 68.1. Introduction
        • 68.2. Built-in Operator Classes
        • 68.3. Extensibility
        • 68.4. Implementation
        • 68.5. Examples
      • 69. SP-GiST Indexes
        • 69.1. Introduction
        • 69.2. Built-in Operator Classes
        • 69.3. Extensibility
        • 69.4. Implementation
        • 69.5. Examples
      • 70. GIN Indexes
        • 70.1. Introduction
        • 70.2. Built-in Operator Classes
        • 70.3. Extensibility
        • 70.4. Implementation
        • 70.5. GIN Tips and Tricks
        • 70.6. Limitations
        • 70.7. Examples
      • 71. BRIN Indexes
        • 71.1. Introduction
        • 71.2. Built-in Operator Classes
        • 71.3. Extensibility
      • 72. Hash Indexes
        • 72.1. Overview
        • 72.2. Implementation
      • 73. Database Physical Storage
        • 73.1. Database File Layout
        • 73.2. TOAST
        • 73.3. Free Space Map
        • 73.4. Visibility Map
        • 73.5. The Initialization Fork
        • 73.6. Database Page Layout
        • 73.7. Heap-Only Tuples (HOT)
      • 74. Transaction Processing
        • 74.1. Transactions and Identifiers
        • 74.2. Transactions and Locking
        • 74.3. Subtransactions
        • 74.4. Two-Phase Transactions
      • 75. System Catalog Declarations and Initial Contents
        • 75.1. System Catalog Declaration Rules
        • 75.2. System Catalog Initial Data
        • 75.3. BKI File Format
        • 75.4. BKI Commands
        • 75.5. Structure of the Bootstrap BKI File
        • 75.6. BKI Example
      • 76. How the Planner Uses Statistics
        • 76.1. Row Estimation Examples
        • 76.2. Multivariate Statistics Examples
        • 76.3. Planner Statistics and Security
      • 77. Backup Manifest Format
        • 77.1. Backup Manifest Top-level Object
        • 77.2. Backup Manifest File Object
        • 77.3. Backup Manifest WAL Range Object
    • 52. Overview of PostgreSQL Internals
      • 52.1. The Path of a Query
      • 52.2. How Connections Are Established
      • 52.3. The Parser Stage
        • 52.3.1. Parser
        • 52.3.2. Transformation Process
      • 52.4. The PostgreSQL Rule System
      • 52.5. Planner/Optimizer
        • 52.5.1. Generating Possible Plans
      • 52.6. Executor
    • 53. System Catalogs
      • 53.1. Overview
      • 53.2. pg_aggregate
      • 53.3. pg_am
      • 53.4. pg_amop
      • 53.5. pg_amproc
      • 53.6. pg_attrdef
      • 53.7. pg_attribute
      • 53.8. pg_authid
      • 53.9. pg_auth_members
      • 53.10. pg_cast
      • 53.11. pg_class
      • 53.12. pg_collation
      • 53.13. pg_constraint
      • 53.14. pg_conversion
      • 53.15. pg_database
      • 53.16. pg_db_role_setting
      • 53.17. pg_default_acl
      • 53.18. pg_depend
      • 53.19. pg_description
      • 53.20. pg_enum
      • 53.21. pg_event_trigger
      • 53.22. pg_extension
      • 53.23. pg_foreign_data_wrapper
      • 53.24. pg_foreign_server
      • 53.25. pg_foreign_table
      • 53.26. pg_index
      • 53.27. pg_inherits
      • 53.28. pg_init_privs
      • 53.29. pg_language
      • 53.30. pg_largeobject
      • 53.31. pg_largeobject_metadata
      • 53.32. pg_namespace
      • 53.33. pg_opclass
      • 53.34. pg_operator
      • 53.35. pg_opfamily
      • 53.36. pg_parameter_acl
      • 53.37. pg_partitioned_table
      • 53.38. pg_policy
      • 53.39. pg_proc
      • 53.40. pg_publication
      • 53.41. pg_publication_namespace
      • 53.42. pg_publication_rel
      • 53.43. pg_range
      • 53.44. pg_replication_origin
      • 53.45. pg_rewrite
      • 53.46. pg_seclabel
      • 53.47. pg_sequence
      • 53.48. pg_shdepend
      • 53.49. pg_shdescription
      • 53.50. pg_shseclabel
      • 53.51. pg_statistic
      • 53.52. pg_statistic_ext
      • 53.53. pg_statistic_ext_data
      • 53.54. pg_subscription
      • 53.55. pg_subscription_rel
      • 53.56. pg_tablespace
      • 53.57. pg_transform
      • 53.58. pg_trigger
      • 53.59. pg_ts_config
      • 53.60. pg_ts_config_map
      • 53.61. pg_ts_dict
      • 53.62. pg_ts_parser
      • 53.63. pg_ts_template
      • 53.64. pg_type
      • 53.65. pg_user_mapping
    • 54. System Views
      • 54.1. Overview
      • 54.2. pg_available_extensions
      • 54.3. pg_available_extension_versions
      • 54.4. pg_backend_memory_contexts
      • 54.5. pg_config
      • 54.6. pg_cursors
      • 54.7. pg_file_settings
      • 54.8. pg_group
      • 54.9. pg_hba_file_rules
      • 54.10. pg_ident_file_mappings
      • 54.11. pg_indexes
      • 54.12. pg_locks
      • 54.13. pg_matviews
      • 54.14. pg_policies
      • 54.15. pg_prepared_statements
      • 54.16. pg_prepared_xacts
      • 54.17. pg_publication_tables
      • 54.18. pg_replication_origin_status
      • 54.19. pg_replication_slots
      • 54.20. pg_roles
      • 54.21. pg_rules
      • 54.22. pg_seclabels
      • 54.23. pg_sequences
      • 54.24. pg_settings
      • 54.25. pg_shadow
      • 54.26. pg_shmem_allocations
      • 54.27. pg_stats
      • 54.28. pg_stats_ext
      • 54.29. pg_stats_ext_exprs
      • 54.30. pg_tables
      • 54.31. pg_timezone_abbrevs
      • 54.32. pg_timezone_names
      • 54.33. pg_user
      • 54.34. pg_user_mappings
      • 54.35. pg_views
    • 55. Frontend/Backend Protocol
      • 55.1. Overview
        • 55.1.1. Messaging Overview
        • 55.1.2. Extended Query Overview
        • 55.1.3. Formats and Format Codes
      • 55.2. Message Flow
        • 55.2.1. Start-up
        • 55.2.2. Simple Query
        • 55.2.3. Extended Query
        • 55.2.4. Pipelining
        • 55.2.5. Function Call
        • 55.2.6. COPY Operations
        • 55.2.7. Asynchronous Operations
        • 55.2.8. Canceling Requests in Progress
        • 55.2.9. Termination
        • 55.2.10. SSL Session Encryption
        • 55.2.11. GSSAPI Session Encryption
      • 55.3. SASL Authentication
        • 55.3.1. SCRAM-SHA-256 Authentication
      • 55.4. Streaming Replication Protocol
      • 55.5. Logical Streaming Replication Protocol
        • 55.5.1. Logical Streaming Replication Parameters
        • 55.5.2. Logical Replication Protocol Messages
        • 55.5.3. Logical Replication Protocol Message Flow
      • 55.6. Message Data Types
      • 55.7. Message Formats
      • 55.8. Error and Notice Message Fields
      • 55.9. Logical Replication Message Formats
      • 55.10. Summary of Changes since Protocol 2.0
    • 56. PostgreSQL Coding Conventions
      • 56.1. Formatting
      • 56.2. Reporting Errors Within the Server
      • 56.3. Error Message Style Guide
      • 56.4. Miscellaneous Coding Conventions
    • 57. Native Language Support
      • 57.1. For the Translator
        • 57.1.1. Requirements
        • 57.1.2. Concepts
        • 57.1.3. Creating and Maintaining Message Catalogs
        • 57.1.4. Editing the PO Files
      • 57.2. For the Programmer
        • 57.2.1. Mechanics
        • 57.2.2. Message-Writing Guidelines
    • 58. Writing a Procedural Language Handler
    • 59. Writing a Foreign Data Wrapper
      • 59.1. Foreign Data Wrapper Functions
      • 59.2. Foreign Data Wrapper Callback Routines
        • 59.2.1. FDW Routines for Scanning Foreign Tables
        • 59.2.2. FDW Routines for Scanning Foreign Joins
        • 59.2.3. FDW Routines for Planning Post-Scan/Join Processing
        • 59.2.4. FDW Routines for Updating Foreign Tables
        • 59.2.5. FDW Routines for TRUNCATE
        • 59.2.6. FDW Routines for Row Locking
        • 59.2.7. FDW Routines for EXPLAIN
        • 59.2.8. FDW Routines for ANALYZE
        • 59.2.9. FDW Routines for IMPORT FOREIGN SCHEMA
        • 59.2.10. FDW Routines for Parallel Execution
        • 59.2.11. FDW Routines for Asynchronous Execution
        • 59.2.12. FDW Routines for Reparameterization of Paths
      • 59.3. Foreign Data Wrapper Helper Functions
      • 59.4. Foreign Data Wrapper Query Planning
      • 59.5. Row Locking in Foreign Data Wrappers
    • 60. Writing a Table Sampling Method
      • 60.1. Sampling Method Support Functions
    • 61. Writing a Custom Scan Provider
      • 61.1. Creating Custom Scan Paths
        • 61.1.1. Custom Scan Path Callbacks
      • 61.2. Creating Custom Scan Plans
        • 61.2.1. Custom Scan Plan Callbacks
      • 61.3. Executing Custom Scans
        • 61.3.1. Custom Scan Execution Callbacks
    • 62. Genetic Query Optimizer
      • 62.1. Query Handling as a Complex Optimization Problem
      • 62.2. Genetic Algorithms
      • 62.3. Genetic Query Optimization (GEQO) in PostgreSQL
        • 62.3.1. Generating Possible Plans with GEQO
        • 62.3.2. Future Implementation Tasks for PostgreSQL GEQO
      • 62.4. Further Reading
    • 63. Table Access Method Interface Definition
    • 64. Index Access Method Interface Definition
      • 64.1. Basic API Structure for Indexes
      • 64.2. Index Access Method Functions
      • 64.3. Index Scanning
      • 64.4. Index Locking Considerations
      • 64.5. Index Uniqueness Checks
      • 64.6. Index Cost Estimation Functions
    • 65. Generic WAL Records
    • 66. Custom WAL Resource Managers
    • 67. B-Tree Indexes
      • 67.1. Introduction
      • 67.2. Behavior of B-Tree Operator Classes
      • 67.3. B-Tree Support Functions
      • 67.4. Implementation
        • 67.4.1. B-Tree Structure
        • 67.4.2. Bottom-up Index Deletion
        • 67.4.3. Deduplication
    • 68. GiST Indexes
      • 68.1. Introduction
      • 68.2. Built-in Operator Classes
      • 68.3. Extensibility
      • 68.4. Implementation
        • 68.4.1. GiST Index Build Methods
      • 68.5. Examples
    • 69. SP-GiST Indexes
      • 69.1. Introduction
      • 69.2. Built-in Operator Classes
      • 69.3. Extensibility
      • 69.4. Implementation
        • 69.4.1. SP-GiST Limits
        • 69.4.2. SP-GiST Without Node Labels
        • 69.4.3. “All-the-Same” Inner Tuples
      • 69.5. Examples
    • 70. GIN Indexes
      • 70.1. Introduction
      • 70.2. Built-in Operator Classes
      • 70.3. Extensibility
      • 70.4. Implementation
        • 70.4.1. GIN Fast Update Technique
        • 70.4.2. Partial Match Algorithm
      • 70.5. GIN Tips and Tricks
      • 70.6. Limitations
      • 70.7. Examples
    • 71. BRIN Indexes
      • 71.1. Introduction
        • 71.1.1. Index Maintenance
      • 71.2. Built-in Operator Classes
        • 71.2.1. Operator Class Parameters
      • 71.3. Extensibility
    • 72. Hash Indexes
      • 72.1. Overview
      • 72.2. Implementation
    • 73. Database Physical Storage
      • 73.1. Database File Layout
      • 73.2. TOAST
        • 73.2.1. Out-of-Line, On-Disk TOAST Storage
        • 73.2.2. Out-of-Line, In-Memory TOAST Storage
      • 73.3. Free Space Map
      • 73.4. Visibility Map
      • 73.5. The Initialization Fork
      • 73.6. Database Page Layout
        • 73.6.1. Table Row Layout
      • 73.7. Heap-Only Tuples (HOT)
    • 74. Transaction Processing
      • 74.1. Transactions and Identifiers
      • 74.2. Transactions and Locking
      • 74.3. Subtransactions
      • 74.4. Two-Phase Transactions
    • 75. System Catalog Declarations and Initial Contents
      • 75.1. System Catalog Declaration Rules
      • 75.2. System Catalog Initial Data
        • 75.2.1. Data File Format
        • 75.2.2. OID Assignment
        • 75.2.3. OID Reference Lookup
        • 75.2.4. Automatic Creation of Array Types
        • 75.2.5. Recipes for Editing Data Files
      • 75.3. BKI File Format
      • 75.4. BKI Commands
      • 75.5. Structure of the Bootstrap BKI File
      • 75.6. BKI Example
    • 76. How the Planner Uses Statistics
      • 76.1. Row Estimation Examples
      • 76.2. Multivariate Statistics Examples
        • 76.2.1. Functional Dependencies
        • 76.2.2. Multivariate N-Distinct Counts
        • 76.2.3. MCV Lists
      • 76.3. Planner Statistics and Security
    • 77. Backup Manifest Format
      • 77.1. Backup Manifest Top-level Object
      • 77.2. Backup Manifest File Object
      • 77.3. Backup Manifest WAL Range Object
    • VIII. Appendixes
      • A. PostgreSQL Error Codes
      • B. Date/Time Support
        • B.1. Date/Time Input Interpretation
        • B.2. Handling of Invalid or Ambiguous Timestamps
        • B.3. Date/Time Key Words
        • B.4. Date/Time Configuration Files
        • B.5. POSIX Time Zone Specifications
        • B.6. History of Units
        • B.7. Julian Dates
      • C. SQL Key Words
      • D. SQL Conformance
        • D.1. Supported Features
        • D.2. Unsupported Features
        • D.3. XML Limits and Conformance to SQL/XML
      • E. Release Notes
        • E.1. Release 16.3
        • E.2. Release 16.2
        • E.3. Release 16.1
        • E.4. Release 16
        • E.5. Prior Releases
      • F. Additional Supplied Modules and Extensions
        • F.1. adminpack — pgAdmin support toolpack
        • F.2. amcheck — tools to verify table and index consistency
        • F.3. auth_delay — pause on authentication failure
        • F.4. auto_explain — log execution plans of slow queries
        • F.5. basebackup_to_shell — example "shell" pg_basebackup module
        • F.6. basic_archive — an example WAL archive module
        • F.7. bloom — bloom filter index access method
        • F.8. btree_gin — GIN operator classes with B-tree behavior
        • F.9. btree_gist — GiST operator classes with B-tree behavior
        • F.10. citext — a case-insensitive character string type
        • F.11. cube — a multi-dimensional cube data type
        • F.12. dblink — connect to other PostgreSQL databases
        • F.13. dict_int — example full-text search dictionary for integers
        • F.14. dict_xsyn — example synonym full-text search dictionary
        • F.15. earthdistance — calculate great-circle distances
        • F.16. file_fdw — access data files in the server’s file system
        • F.17. fuzzystrmatch — determine string similarities and distance
        • F.18. hstore — hstore key/value datatype
        • F.19. intagg — integer aggregator and enumerator
        • F.20. intarray — manipulate arrays of integers
        • F.21. isn — data types for international standard numbers (ISBN, EAN, UPC, etc.)
        • F.22. lo — manage large objects
        • F.23. ltree — hierarchical tree-like data type
        • F.24. old_snapshot — inspect old_snapshot_threshold state
        • F.25. pageinspect — low-level inspection of database pages
        • F.26. passwordcheck — verify password strength
        • F.27. pg_buffercache — inspect PostgreSQL buffer cache state
        • F.28. pgcrypto — cryptographic functions
        • F.29. pg_freespacemap — examine the free space map
        • F.30. pg_prewarm — preload relation data into buffer caches
        • F.31. pgrowlocks — show a table’s row locking information
        • F.32. pg_stat_statements — track statistics of SQL planning and execution
        • F.33. pgstattuple — obtain tuple-level statistics
        • F.34. pg_surgery — perform low-level surgery on relation data
        • F.35. pg_trgm — support for similarity of text using trigram matching
        • F.36. pg_visibility — visibility map information and utilities
        • F.37. pg_walinspect — low-level WAL inspection
        • F.38. postgres_fdw — access data stored in external PostgreSQL servers
        • F.39. seg — a datatype for line segments or floating point intervals
        • F.40. sepgsql — SELinux-, label-based mandatory access control (MAC) security module
        • F.41. spi — Server Programming Interface features/examples
        • F.42. sslinfo — obtain client SSL information
        • F.43. tablefunc — functions that return tables (crosstab and others)
        • F.44. tcn — a trigger function to notify listeners of changes to table content
        • F.45. test_decoding — SQL-based test/example module for WAL logical decoding
        • F.46. tsm_system_rows — the SYSTEM_ROWS sampling method for TABLESAMPLE
        • F.47. tsm_system_time — the SYSTEM_TIME sampling method for TABLESAMPLE
        • F.48. unaccent — a text search dictionary which removes diacritics
        • F.49. uuid-ossp — a UUID generator
        • F.50. xml2 — XPath querying and XSLT functionality
      • G. Additional Supplied Programs
        • G.1. Client Applications
        • G.2. Server Applications
      • H. External Projects
        • H.1. Client Interfaces
        • H.2. Administration Tools
        • H.3. Procedural Languages
        • H.4. Extensions
      • I. The Source Code Repository
        • I.1. Getting the Source via Git
      • J. Documentation
        • J.1. DocBook
        • J.2. Tool Sets
        • J.3. Building the Documentation with Make
        • J.4. Building the Documentation with Meson
        • J.5. Documentation Authoring
        • J.6. Style Guide
      • K. PostgreSQL Limits
      • L. Acronyms
      • M. Glossary
      • N. Color Support
        • N.1. When Color is Used
        • N.2. Configuring the Colors
      • O. Obsolete or Renamed Features
        • O.1. recovery.conf file merged into postgresql.conf
        • O.2. Default Roles Renamed to Predefined Roles
        • O.3. pg_xlogdump renamed to pg_waldump
        • O.4. pg_resetxlog renamed to pg_resetwal
        • O.5. pg_receivexlog renamed to pg_receivewal
    • A. PostgreSQL Error Codes
    • B. Date/Time Support
      • B.1. Date/Time Input Interpretation
      • B.2. Handling of Invalid or Ambiguous Timestamps
      • B.3. Date/Time Key Words
      • B.4. Date/Time Configuration Files
      • B.5. POSIX Time Zone Specifications
      • B.6. History of Units
      • B.7. Julian Dates
    • C. SQL Key Words
    • D. SQL Conformance
      • D.1. Supported Features
      • D.2. Unsupported Features
      • D.3. XML Limits and Conformance to SQL/XML
        • D.3.1. Queries Are Restricted to XPath 1.0
        • D.3.2. Incidental Limits of the Implementation
    • E. Release Notes
      • E.1. Release 16.3
        • E.1.1. Migration to Version 16.3
        • E.1.2. Changes
      • E.2. Release 16.2
        • E.2.1. Migration to Version 16.2
        • E.2.2. Changes
      • E.3. Release 16.1
        • E.3.1. Migration to Version 16.1
        • E.3.2. Changes
      • E.4. Release 16
        • E.4.1. Overview
        • E.4.2. Migration to Version 16
        • E.4.3. Changes
        • E.4.4. Acknowledgments
      • E.5. Prior Releases
    • F. Additional Supplied Modules and Extensions
      • F.1. adminpack — pgAdmin support toolpack
      • F.2. amcheck — tools to verify table and index consistency
        • F.2.1. Functions
        • F.2.2. Optional heapallindexed Verification
        • F.2.3. Using amcheck Effectively
        • F.2.4. Repairing Corruption
      • F.3. auth_delay — pause on authentication failure
        • F.3.1. Configuration Parameters
        • F.3.2. Author
      • F.4. auto_explain — log execution plans of slow queries
        • F.4.1. Configuration Parameters
        • F.4.2. Example
        • F.4.3. Author
      • F.5. basebackup_to_shell — example "shell" pg_basebackup module
        • F.5.1. Configuration Parameters
        • F.5.2. Author
      • F.6. basic_archive — an example WAL archive module
        • F.6.1. Configuration Parameters
        • F.6.2. Notes
        • F.6.3. Author
      • F.7. bloom — bloom filter index access method
        • F.7.1. Parameters
        • F.7.2. Examples
        • F.7.3. Operator Class Interface
        • F.7.4. Limitations
        • F.7.5. Authors
      • F.8. btree_gin — GIN operator classes with B-tree behavior
        • F.8.1. Example Usage
        • F.8.2. Authors
      • F.9. btree_gist — GiST operator classes with B-tree behavior
        • F.9.1. Example Usage
        • F.9.2. Authors
      • F.10. citext — a case-insensitive character string type
        • F.10.1. Rationale
        • F.10.2. How to Use It
        • F.10.3. String Comparison Behavior
        • F.10.4. Limitations
        • F.10.5. Author
      • F.11. cube — a multi-dimensional cube data type
        • F.11.1. Syntax
        • F.11.2. Precision
        • F.11.3. Usage
        • F.11.4. Defaults
        • F.11.5. Notes
        • F.11.6. Credits
      • F.12. dblink — connect to other PostgreSQL databases
        • dblink_connect
        • dblink_connect_u
        • dblink_disconnect
        • dblink
        • dblink_exec
        • dblink_open
        • dblink_fetch
        • dblink_close
        • dblink_get_connections
        • dblink_error_message
        • dblink_send_query
        • dblink_is_busy
        • dblink_get_notify
        • dblink_get_result
        • dblink_cancel_query
        • dblink_get_pkey
        • dblink_build_sql_insert
        • dblink_build_sql_delete
        • dblink_build_sql_update
      • F.13. dict_int — example full-text search dictionary for integers
        • F.13.1. Configuration
        • F.13.2. Usage
      • F.14. dict_xsyn — example synonym full-text search dictionary
        • F.14.1. Configuration
        • F.14.2. Usage
      • F.15. earthdistance — calculate great-circle distances
        • F.15.1. Cube-Based Earth Distances
        • F.15.2. Point-Based Earth Distances
      • F.16. file_fdw — access data files in the server’s file system
      • F.17. fuzzystrmatch — determine string similarities and distance
        • F.17.1. Soundex
        • F.17.2. Daitch-Mokotoff Soundex
        • F.17.3. Levenshtein
        • F.17.4. Metaphone
        • F.17.5. Double Metaphone
      • F.18. hstore — hstore key/value datatype
        • F.18.1. hstore External Representation
        • F.18.2. hstore Operators and Functions
        • F.18.3. Indexes
        • F.18.4. Examples
        • F.18.5. Statistics
        • F.18.6. Compatibility
        • F.18.7. Transforms
        • F.18.8. Authors
      • F.19. intagg — integer aggregator and enumerator
        • F.19.1. Functions
        • F.19.2. Sample Uses
      • F.20. intarray — manipulate arrays of integers
        • F.20.1. intarray Functions and Operators
        • F.20.2. Index Support
        • F.20.3. Example
        • F.20.4. Benchmark
        • F.20.5. Authors
      • F.21. isn — data types for international standard numbers (ISBN, EAN, UPC, etc.)
        • F.21.1. Data Types
        • F.21.2. Casts
        • F.21.3. Functions and Operators
        • F.21.4. Examples
        • F.21.5. Bibliography
        • F.21.6. Author
      • F.22. lo — manage large objects
        • F.22.1. Rationale
        • F.22.2. How to Use It
        • F.22.3. Limitations
        • F.22.4. Author
      • F.23. ltree — hierarchical tree-like data type
        • F.23.1. Definitions
        • F.23.2. Operators and Functions
        • F.23.3. Indexes
        • F.23.4. Example
        • F.23.5. Transforms
        • F.23.6. Authors
      • F.24. old_snapshot — inspect old_snapshot_threshold state
        • F.24.1. Functions
      • F.25. pageinspect — low-level inspection of database pages
        • F.25.1. General Functions
        • F.25.2. Heap Functions
        • F.25.3. B-Tree Functions
        • F.25.4. BRIN Functions
        • F.25.5. GIN Functions
        • F.25.6. GiST Functions
        • F.25.7. Hash Functions
      • F.26. passwordcheck — verify password strength
      • F.27. pg_buffercache — inspect PostgreSQL buffer cache state
        • F.27.1. The pg_buffercache View
        • F.27.2. The pg_buffercache_summary() Function
        • F.27.3. The pg_buffercache_usage_counts() Function
        • F.27.4. Sample Output
        • F.27.5. Authors
      • F.28. pgcrypto — cryptographic functions
        • F.28.1. General Hashing Functions
        • F.28.2. Password Hashing Functions
        • F.28.3. PGP Encryption Functions
        • F.28.4. Raw Encryption Functions
        • F.28.5. Random-Data Functions
        • F.28.6. Notes
        • F.28.7. Author
      • F.29. pg_freespacemap — examine the free space map
        • F.29.1. Functions
        • F.29.2. Sample Output
        • F.29.3. Author
      • F.30. pg_prewarm — preload relation data into buffer caches
        • F.30.1. Functions
        • F.30.2. Configuration Parameters
        • F.30.3. Author
      • F.31. pgrowlocks — show a table’s row locking information
        • F.31.1. Overview
        • F.31.2. Sample Output
        • F.31.3. Author
      • F.32. pg_stat_statements — track statistics of SQL planning and execution
        • F.32.1. The pg_stat_statements View
        • F.32.2. The pg_stat_statements_info View
        • F.32.3. Functions
        • F.32.4. Configuration Parameters
        • F.32.5. Sample Output
        • F.32.6. Authors
      • F.33. pgstattuple — obtain tuple-level statistics
        • F.33.1. Functions
        • F.33.2. Authors
      • F.34. pg_surgery — perform low-level surgery on relation data
        • F.34.1. Functions
        • F.34.2. Authors
      • F.35. pg_trgm — support for similarity of text using trigram matching
        • F.35.1. Trigram (or Trigraph) Concepts
        • F.35.2. Functions and Operators
        • F.35.3. GUC Parameters
        • F.35.4. Index Support
        • F.35.5. Text Search Integration
        • F.35.6. References
        • F.35.7. Authors
      • F.36. pg_visibility — visibility map information and utilities
        • F.36.1. Functions
        • F.36.2. Author
      • F.37. pg_walinspect — low-level WAL inspection
        • F.37.1. General Functions
        • F.37.2. Author
      • F.38. postgres_fdw — access data stored in external PostgreSQL servers
        • F.38.1. FDW Options of postgres_fdw
        • F.38.2. Functions
        • F.38.3. Connection Management
        • F.38.4. Transaction Management
        • F.38.5. Remote Query Optimization
        • F.38.6. Remote Query Execution Environment
        • F.38.7. Cross-Version Compatibility
        • F.38.8. Configuration Parameters
        • F.38.9. Examples
        • F.38.10. Author
      • F.39. seg — a datatype for line segments or floating point intervals
        • F.39.1. Rationale
        • F.39.2. Syntax
        • F.39.3. Precision
        • F.39.4. Usage
        • F.39.5. Notes
        • F.39.6. Credits
      • F.40. sepgsql — SELinux-, label-based mandatory access control (MAC) security module
        • F.40.1. Overview
        • F.40.2. Installation
        • F.40.3. Regression Tests
        • F.40.4. GUC Parameters
        • F.40.5. Features
        • F.40.6. Sepgsql Functions
        • F.40.7. Limitations
        • F.40.8. External Resources
        • F.40.9. Author
      • F.41. spi — Server Programming Interface features/examples
        • F.41.1. refint — Functions for Implementing Referential Integrity
        • F.41.2. autoinc — Functions for Autoincrementing Fields
        • F.41.3. insert_username — Functions for Tracking Who Changed a Table
        • F.41.4. moddatetime — Functions for Tracking Last Modification Time
      • F.42. sslinfo — obtain client SSL information
        • F.42.1. Functions Provided
        • F.42.2. Author
      • F.43. tablefunc — functions that return tables (crosstab and others)
        • F.43.1. Functions Provided
        • F.43.2. Author
      • F.44. tcn — a trigger function to notify listeners of changes to table content
      • F.45. test_decoding — SQL-based test/example module for WAL logical decoding
      • F.46. tsm_system_rows — the SYSTEM_ROWS sampling method for TABLESAMPLE
        • F.46.1. Examples
      • F.47. tsm_system_time — the SYSTEM_TIME sampling method for TABLESAMPLE
        • F.47.1. Examples
      • F.48. unaccent — a text search dictionary which removes diacritics
        • F.48.1. Configuration
        • F.48.2. Usage
        • F.48.3. Functions
      • F.49. uuid-ossp — a UUID generator
        • F.49.1. uuid-ossp Functions
        • F.49.2. Building uuid-ossp
        • F.49.3. Author
      • F.50. xml2 — XPath querying and XSLT functionality
        • F.50.1. Deprecation Notice
        • F.50.2. Description of Functions
        • F.50.3. xpath_table
        • F.50.4. XSLT Functions
        • F.50.5. Author
    • G. Additional Supplied Programs
      • G.1. Client Applications
        • oid2name
        • vacuumlo
      • G.2. Server Applications
    • H. External Projects
      • H.1. Client Interfaces
      • H.2. Administration Tools
      • H.3. Procedural Languages
      • H.4. Extensions
    • I. The Source Code Repository
      • I.1. Getting the Source via Git
    • J. Documentation
      • J.1. DocBook
      • J.2. Tool Sets
        • J.2.1. Installation on Fedora, RHEL, and Derivatives
        • J.2.2. Installation on FreeBSD
        • J.2.3. Debian Packages
        • J.2.4. macOS
        • J.2.5. Detection by configure
      • J.3. Building the Documentation with Make
        • J.3.1. HTML
        • J.3.2. Manpages
        • J.3.3. PDF
        • J.3.4. Plain Text Files
        • J.3.5. Syntax Check
      • J.4. Building the Documentation with Meson
      • J.5. Documentation Authoring
        • J.5.1. Emacs
      • J.6. Style Guide
        • J.6.1. Reference Pages
    • K. PostgreSQL Limits
    • L. Acronyms
    • M. Glossary
    • N. Color Support
      • N.1. When Color is Used
      • N.2. Configuring the Colors
    • O. Obsolete or Renamed Features
      • O.1. recovery.conf file merged into postgresql.conf
      • O.2. Default Roles Renamed to Predefined Roles
      • O.3. pg_xlogdump renamed to pg_waldump
      • O.4. pg_resetxlog renamed to pg_resetwal
      • O.5. pg_receivexlog renamed to pg_receivewal
    • Bibliography
    • Index
  • Postgresql 中文操作指南
  • VII. Internals
  • 67. B-Tree Indexes

Postgresql 中文操作指南

Chapter 67. B-Tree Indexes

Table of Contents

  • Postgresql 中文操作指南
    • defaultcurrent

粤ICP备2024239452号-1